Psychological Theories and Methods

These flashcards cover key concepts from the psychology lecture notes, including critical theories, relevant figures, and methodological approaches.

Mind-Body Dualism

The philosophical concept originated by René Descartes that views the mind and body as separate substances that interact.

Phrenology

The pseudoscientific theory that specific mental functions are localized in specific areas of the brain, as proposed by Franz Joseph Gall.

Structuralism

A school of psychology founded by Wilhelm Wundt that analyzes the structure of conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements.

Functionalism

A school of thought founded by William James that studies how mental processes evolve to serve life-preserving functions.

Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach developed by Freud that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and personality.

Collective Unconscious

A concept introduced by Carl Jung that refers to shared, universal experiences and archetypes that reside in the unconscious mind.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that focuses solely on observable behavior and dismisses introspection as a valid method of study.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, associated with B.F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process identified by Ivan Pavlov that involves associating an involuntary response with a stimulus.

Gestalt Psychology

The psychological perspective that asserts that the whole of human experience is greater than the sum of its parts.

Humanistic Theory

An approach to psychology that emphasizes personal growth and the concept of self-actualization, associated with figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Cognitive Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, learn, remember, and perceive.

Descriptive Research

Research methods that involve observing and describing behavior without manipulating the environment.

Correlational Studies

Research studies that examine how two variables are related without manipulating either variable.

Experimental Method

A research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring their effects on dependent variables.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that transmit signals across synapses from one neuron to another and play a crucial role in brain functions.

Endocrine System

The system that uses hormones to regulate thoughts, behaviors, and bodily functions, in contrast to the nervous system which uses electrical signals.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression, affecting behavior and psychological traits.

Observer Bias

Systematic errors in observation that occur due to an observer's expectations or cultural norms.

Third Variable Problem

A situation in correlational studies where a third factor may influence both variables, making it unclear what the true causal relationship is.

Illusory Correlations

Perceptions of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Mind-Body Dualism

The philosophical concept originated by René Descartes that views the mind and body as separate substances that interact.

Phrenology

The pseudoscientific theory that specific mental functions are localized in specific areas of the brain, as proposed by Franz Joseph Gall.

Structuralism

A school of psychology founded by Wilhelm Wundt that analyzes the structure of conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements.

Functionalism

A school of thought founded by William James that studies how mental processes evolve to serve life-preserving functions.

Psychoanalysis

A therapeutic approach developed by Freud that emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and personality.

Collective Unconscious

A concept introduced by Carl Jung that refers to shared, universal experiences and archetypes that reside in the unconscious mind.

Behaviorism

A psychological approach that focuses solely on observable behavior and dismisses introspection as a valid method of study.

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior, associated with B.F. Skinner.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process identified by Ivan Pavlov that involves associating an involuntary response with a stimulus.

Gestalt Psychology

The psychological perspective that asserts that the whole of human experience is greater than the sum of its parts.

Humanistic Theory

An approach to psychology that emphasizes personal growth and the concept of self-actualization, associated with figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Cognitive Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, learn, remember, and perceive.

Descriptive Research

Research methods that involve observing and describing behavior without manipulating the environment.

Correlational Studies

Research studies that examine how two variables are related without manipulating either variable.

Experimental Method

A research method that tests causal hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and measuring their effects on dependent variables.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances that transmit signals across synapses from one neuron to another and play a crucial role in brain functions.

Endocrine System

The system that uses hormones to regulate thoughts, behaviors, and bodily functions, in contrast to the nervous system which uses electrical signals.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression, affecting behavior and psychological traits.

Observer Bias

Systematic errors in observation that occur due to an observer's expectations or cultural norms.

Third Variable Problem

A situation in correlational studies where a third factor may influence both variables, making it unclear what the true causal relationship is.

Illusory Correlations

Perceptions of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

Known as the 'father of psychology,' he established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, marking the beginning of modern experimental psychology.

Distinguish between Reliability and Validity (Accuracy) in research.

Reliability refers to the consistency of a research measure, while Validity (or Accuracy) refers to the extent to which a measure accurately assesses what it intends to measure.

What is Random Error in research?

Unpredictable fluctuations that affect the measurement of a variable without any discernible pattern, often due to chance or uncontrollable factors.

What is Systematic Error in research?

Consistent, repeatable errors in measurement that occur due to a flaw in the experimental design, equipment, or observation method, often leading to biased results.

What are the four primary goals of science in psychology?

To describe, explain, predict, and control (or influence) behavior and mental processes.

Distinguish between a scientific Theory and a Hypothesis.

A Theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts, repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often derived from a theory, that states a potential relationship between variables.

What are common subtypes of Descriptive Research?

Observational studies (naturalistic or laboratory), case studies, and surveys/self-report measures.

Distinguish between Random Assignment and Random Selection.

Random Assignment is used in experimental research to place participants into experimental or control groups randomly, ensuring groups are equivalent. Random Selection is used to choose participants from a population for a study, ensuring the sample is representative of the larger population.

What are 'Best Sampling Practices' in psychological research?

Methods used to select participants from a population that aim to ensure the sample is representative and unbiased, often involving random sampling techniques to allow for generalization of findings.

What are Descriptive Statistics?

Mathematical methods used to organize, summarize, and describe characteristics of a data set, such as measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode) and variability (standard deviation, range).

What is an Action Potential?

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, serving as the fundamental unit of communication within the nervous system.

Describe the basic structure and function of a Neuron.

The basic building block of the nervous system, composed of a cell body, dendrites (receive signals), and an axon (transmits signals), responsible for processing and transmitting information.

What is a Synapse and what is its function?

The specialized junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another, where 'Neurotransmitters' are released to transmit signals.

What are the two major divisions of the Nervous System?

The Central Nervous System (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which includes all nerves outside the CNS.

What are the subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

The Somatic Nervous System (controls voluntary movements and transmits sensory info) and the Autonomic Nervous System (controls involuntary bodily functions).

What are the further subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)?

The Sympathetic Nervous System (prepares the body for stress/fight-or-flight) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (calms the body and conserves energy).

How does the Endocrine System connect to and interact with the brain?

The brain, particularly the hypothalamus, controls the pituitary gland, which in turn regulates the release of hormones by other endocrine glands, forming a crucial link between the nervous and endocrine systems.

What is the Somatosensory Homunculus?

A distorted anatomical representation of the human body across the postcentral gyrus (somatosensory cortex), showing the relative proportion of cortex dedicated to processing sensory information from different body parts.

What is the Motor Homunculus?

A distorted anatomical representation of the human body across the precentral gyrus (motor cortex), showing the relative proportion of cortex dedicated to controlling voluntary movements of different body parts.

What is the Corpus Callosum?

A large band of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres, allowing them to communicate and share information.

What characterizes 'Split-Brain Patients'?

Individuals who have undergone surgical severing of the corpus callosum, often to treat severe epilepsy, resulting in the two hemispheres operating largely independently.

What happens in a basic split-brain experiment if an object is shown only to the left visual field?

The information goes to the right hemisphere. If asked to name the object, the patient likely cannot (because the language center is usually in the left hemisphere), but they can often pick it out with their left hand (controlled by the right hemisphere).

What is the function of the Brainstem?

The oldest and innermost region of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, sleep, and consciousness.

Name some key Subcortical Structures and their general functions.

Includes the Thalamus (sensory relay station), Hypothalamus (regulates basic drives), Amygdala (emotion/fear), Hippocampus (memory formation), and Basal Ganglia (motor control).

What are the four main Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex and their primary functions?

1. Frontal Lobe: Planning, decision-making, executive functions, voluntary movement. 2. Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory processing, spatial awareness. 3. Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing, memory, language comprehension. 4. Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.

What is the relationship between brain location and order of development?

Generally, brain structures develop from back to front and from bottom to top. Evolutionarily older, primitive structures (like the brainstem) develop first, followed by subcortical structures, and finally the more complex cortical areas (especially the frontal lobe) which mature last.

How are twin studies used in psychology?

Researchers compare identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to estimate the relative contributions of genetics (heritability) and environment to psychological traits and behaviors.

What is the general role of Genetics in psychology?

The study of how inherited biological factors (genes) contribute to individual differences in personality, intelligence, mental disorders, and other psychological characteristics.

What is Sensory Adaptation?

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation over time, allowing us to focus on novel stimuli in our environment (e.g., getting used to a smell).

What is Psychophysics?

The study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli (e.g., intensity) and our psychological experience of them.

What is the Absolute Threshold?

The minimum intensity of stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50\% of the time.

What is the Just Noticeable Difference (JND) or Difference Threshold?

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50\% of the time; it is proportional to the original stimulus intensity (Weber's Law).

How is light transduced into neural signals in the eye?

Light passes through the cornea and lens to the retina, where photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) convert light energy into electrochemical signals, which are then processed by bipolar and ganglion cells before being sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

What is the Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision?

States that there are three types of cone receptors in the retina, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light (red, green, blue), and our perception of color is based on the combined activity of these receptors.

What is the Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision?

Proposes that color vision is based on opposing pairs of colors (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white); cells in the visual system are excited by one color and inhibited by its opponent.

What are some key Gestalt Principles of Perception?

Principles such as Proximity (grouping nearby objects), Similarity (grouping similar objects), Closure (filling in gaps to complete a whole), Continuity (perceiving smooth, continuous patterns), and Figure-Ground (distinguishing objects from their background).

What is 'Face Perception' in psychology?

The specialized cognitive process involved in identifying and interpreting faces, a skill critical for social interaction, believed to involve dedicated brain regions like the prosopagnosia-causing fusiform face area (FFA).

What is Depth Perception?

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge the distance of objects, utilizing both monocular (one eye) and binocular (two eyes) cues.

What is Perceptual Constancy?

The tendency to perceive objects as unchanging (in terms of shape, size, color, brightness) even as illumination and retinal image change.

Describe the path of sound from the outer ear to the basilar membrane.

Sound waves enter the outer ear (pinna, auditory canal), vibrate the eardrum (tympanic membrane), which moves the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear. The stapes vibrates the oval window, causing fluid in the cochlea to move, which in turn vibrates the Basilar Membrane, stimulating hair cells.

What is the Vestibular Sense?

The sense of body movement, balance, and spatial orientation, primarily managed by fluid-filled semicircular canals and otolith organs in the inner ear.

What are the basic tastes perceived by the human tongue?

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory).

How does the sense of Smell (Olfaction) work?

Odor molecules enter the nasal cavity, bind to receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium, which send signals directly to the olfactory bulb in the brain.

How does the sense of Touch work?

Various sensory receptors in the skin detect pressure, temperature, and vibration, converting these physical stimuli into neural signals sent to the somatosensory cortex.

What is Pain, psychologically?

An unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, involving specific nerve fibers (nociceptors) and modulated by psychological factors like attention and expectation (Gate-Control Theory).

What is Sensory Integration (or Multimodal Perception)?

The process by which the brain combines information from multiple sensory modalities (e.g., sight and sound) to form a unified perception of the environment.

What is Selective Attention?

The ability to focus conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring other distracting stimuli.

What is a Dichotic Listening Task?

An experimental procedure used to study selective attention, where participants wear headphones and hear different auditory messages in each ear simultaneously, typically asked to attend to only one message.

What is the Cocktail Party Effect?

The ability to attend to one voice among many in a noisy environment, demonstrating selective attention, while still being able to detect salient information from unattended channels (like one's own name).

What is Automaticity in cognitive psychology?

The ability to perform tasks without conscious awareness or effort, often developed through practice and repetition (e.g., riding a bike, reading).

What is the Stroop Effect?

A classic demonstration of interference in mental processing where naming the color of a word is slower and less accurate when the word itself names a different color (e.g., the word 'red' printed in blue ink).

What is Hemineglect (or Spatial Neglect)?

A neurological disorder, often following damage to the right parietal lobe, where a patient fails to attend to stimuli on one side of space (typically the left), even though their sensory and motor abilities are intact.

What is the 'Interpretive Left Hemisphere'?

A concept, often observed in split-brain patients, where the left hemisphere attempts to construct a coherent narrative or explanation for actions or perceptions, even if it lacks complete information, interpreting events to maintain a sense of consistency.

What are Circadian Rhythms?

Biological processes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, affecting sleep-wake patterns, hormone release, body temperature, and other physiological functions.

What is the primary biological substrate for Circadian Rhythms?

The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus, which acts as the body's 'master clock' and is influenced by light cues detected by the eyes.

What are some consequences of chronic lack of sleep?

Impaired cognitive function (attention, memory, decision-making), reduced immune function, increased risk of accidents, mood disturbances, and increased risk of chronic health problems (e.g., obesity, diabetes).

What are the basic stages of sleep?

Non-REM (NREM) sleep, divided into N1, N2, and N3 (deep sleep), and Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, characterized by vivid dreaming and muscle paralysis.

What is Dreaming?

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind, particularly vivid during REM sleep.