Introduction to Philosophy and the Philosophical Enterprise

Philosopher

• Someone who seeks wisdom, not someone who already knows everything.

First Causes

• Fundamental truths that explain why things exist and happen. They form the foundation of logical thinking.

Natural Light of Reason

Relies strictly on human intellect, critical thinking, and logic rather than supernatural revelation (distinguishing philosophy from theology).

Holistic Thinking

• Connects different ideas, considers multiple viewpoints, evaluates 

• long-term consequences, and seeks deeper context rather than partial answers.

Metaphysics

• Main Question: "What is real?" Studies reality, existence, being, and the universe. Distinguishes Appearance (what we observe via senses) from Reality (the deeper truth behind observations).

Ethics

• What is right and wrong?" Studies morality, good and evil, moral decisions, and human actions.

Logic

• "Is the reasoning valid?" Comes from Greek $\lambda o\gamma \iota \kappa \acute{\eta }$ (logike, "reasoning" or "study of thought"). Teaches how to think correctly rather than what to believe.

Aesthetics

•  "What is beauty?" Studies beauty, art, taste, and creativity. Makes knowledge meaningful, enriches human life, and connects us with culture. Arthur Schopenhauer noted: "You must treat a work of art like a great man. Stand before it and wait patiently until it deigns to speak."

Heraclitus

• "Philosopher of Change". Stated "The only constant in life is change" and "No man ever steps into the same river twice." Fire is his symbol of reality.

Parmenides

Founder of Eleatic School. Argued reality is Being—eternal, complete, and unchanging. Sensory perception of change is an illusion

Avicenna

• Persian Muslim philosopher.

Contingent Being

Something that can exist or not exist; depends on another cause.

Necessary Being

1. Something that must exist and is self-sufficient (God). needs god to exist.

Essence vs. Existence

1. Essence = what something is; Existence = that something actually is. For contingent beings, essence does not guarantee existence; for the Necessary Being, essence and existence are identical.

St. Thomas Aquinas

• Taught that faith and reason complement each other. Developed the Five Ways (Proofs for God's existence):

Argument from Motion

Potentiality moving to actuality requires a First Unmoved Mover (God

Argument from Contingency

Dependent beings require an ultimate Necessary Being (God)

Anthropocentric Views

Places human reason, experience, and capacities at the center. Shifted from medieval questions about God to "How can I know what is true?" Driven by the rise of modern science, declining Church authority, and humanistic confidence.

• Rationalism: Knowledge originates primarily through REASON independent of sensory experience.

  • René Baterbonia  Descartes (1596–1650): Father of Modern Philosophy. Applied Methodic Doubt (doubting sensory evidence) to reach an indubitable

Rationalism

Places human reason, experience, and capacities at the center. Shifted from medieval questions about God to "How can I know what is true?" Driven by the rise of modern science, declining Church authority, and humanistic confidence.

Empiricism

• Knowledge originates fundamentally through SENSORY EXPERIENCE.

John Locke

• Rejected innate ideas. Claimed the mind begins as a Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate"). Knowledge derives from:

Doxa

Greek term for belief or opinion ("what seems to be true," derived from dokein). Based on appearances, feelings, assumptions, or bias. Means Glory