2.2 The Mongols

Lifestyle of Mongols

Nomadic pastoralists from the Central Asian steppe; skilled horse riders, lived in yurts, organized into kin-based clans

Short bow

Mongol composite bow with superior range and power, allowed highly mobile warfare on horseback

Siege weapons

Catapults, battering rams, and gunpowder-based weapons used by Mongols to conquer walled cities

Pax Mongolica

“Mongol Peace” (13th–14th centuries) when stability and safety across the empire revived Silk Road trade and cultural exchange

Golden Horde

Mongol khanate ruling over Russia and eastern Europe; forced Russian principalities to pay tribute

Ilkhanate

Mongol khanate in Persia; converted to Islam and blended with local Persian culture

Yuan Dynasty

Mongol dynasty in China established by Kublai Khan; used Chinese-style administration but kept Mongols at the top of society

Long-term impact of Mongols

Reopened and protected Eurasian trade routes, spread technology (gunpowder, printing), ideas, and the Black Death; contributed to growth of centralized states

Genghis Khan

Founder and “Great Khan” of the Mongol Empire; united tribes and expanded empire through military strategy and merit-based leadership

Kublai Khan

Grandson of Genghis Khan; completed conquest of China and founded the Yuan Dynasty

Ming Dynasty

Chinese dynasty (1368–1644) that overthrew Mongols, restored Han rule, revived Confucian exams, and later focused on rebuilding the Great Wall and internal stabilit