Theme 2- CH 4 The Mauryan Empire

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts related to Mughal agrarian society, economy, and governance.

What was the significance of khud-kashta and pahi-kashta classifications in Mughal agrarian society?

Khud-kashta were resident cultivators; pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators—important for understanding land tenure and mobility in rural Mughal India.

How did the Ain-i-Akbari represent the Mughal vision of control over rural society?

It portrayed social harmony under a strong ruling class and depicted any defiance as destined to fail.

How did rainfall patterns influence regional crop distribution in Mughal India?

Areas with >40 inches of rainfall grew rice; less rainfall led to wheat and millet cultivation.

What agrarian technology limited soil erosion and preserved moisture in hot months?

The light wooden plough with an iron tip that didn’t make deep furrows.

How did the Mughal state support irrigation projects?

It funded new canals and repaired old ones like the Shahnahr under Shah Jahan.

What made jins-i kamil crops vital in the Mughal economy?

These high-value cash crops (like cotton, sugarcane) brought higher revenue to the state.

How did tobacco’s introduction reflect shifts in crop culture in the 17th century?

Tobacco spread rapidly post-1604, becoming a major cultivated and consumed crop despite bans.

What demographic trend is linked with Mughal agrarian prosperity?

India's population grew by ~50 million (33%) between 1600–1800.

How did the rural caste hierarchy impact access to land and resources?

Lower castes often performed menial labor and were deprived of ownership rights.

Which intermediate castes gained prominence due to profitable rural occupations?

Ahirs, Gujars, Malis (via cattle rearing and horticulture); Sadgops and Kaivartas (in eastern India).

What role did the muqaddam or mandal play in panchayat governance?

Supervised village accounts, represented community, and upheld caste norms.

How did panchayat funds contribute to village resilience?

Used for hospitality, disaster relief, and infrastructure like bunds and canals.

What social control mechanism did panchayats possess?

Power to levy fines and temporarily expel violators of caste norms.

What legal authority did jati panchayats exercise in Rajasthan?

Mediated land disputes, enforced caste norms in marriages and rituals.

How did village petitions reflect expectations from the state?

Highlighted moral obligation of state to ensure peasant survival and justice.

How did desertion become a form of protest for peasants?

Availability of land and demand for labor made it an effective resistance tool.

What economic role did artisans play in village economy?

Provided services in return for harvest shares, land allotments, or goods.

How did jajmani-type relationships function before the term existed?

Artisan remuneration was negotiated in goods/services exchange systems.

Why is the notion of the village as a 'little republic' misleading?

Caste and gender inequities, not egalitarianism, shaped decision-making and ownership.

What gender roles persisted despite women’s economic contributions?

Women were controlled by male authority and excluded from formal records.

What custom in rural society challenged elite marriage norms?

Bride-price and acceptance of widow/divorcee remarriage.

How did women participate in the rural land market in Punjab?

Widows and wives inherited, sold, and mortgaged land actively.

What does Babur’s observation on village formation suggest?

High rural mobility and reliance on rain-fed agriculture allowed instant resettlement.

How was tribal livelihood structured seasonally?

Spring: gathering; summer: fishing; monsoon: cultivation; autumn-winter: hunting.

What form of tribute did the Mughal state demand from forest dwellers?

Peshkash, often in the form of elephants for the army.

What economic link bridged hill tribes and plains in Awadh?

Barter trade involving musk, yak tails, and wool for cloth, glassware, etc.

How did tribal chiefs transform into zamindars or kings?

Through military recruitment and state recognition of lineage control.

Why was the Mughal hunt a political act?

It symbolized the emperor’s reach and ability to resolve grievances directly.

What role did zamindars play in land colonization?

Helped settle peasants, gave cultivation loans, and established local markets.

How did the Mughal state balance zamindari autonomy and control?

By issuing sanads to authorize or limit zamindari expansion.

Why were zamindars not targeted by Bhakti saints’ criticism?

Saints focused ire on revenue officials, not zamindars, reflecting mutual reliance.

How were zamindars involved in uprisings?

Often led or supported peasant revolts against excessive taxation by the state.

What was the role of the diwan in the revenue system?

Oversaw fiscal administration, ensured accurate land assessment and collection.

Differentiate between jama and hasil.

Jama: assessed revenue; Hasil: actual revenue collected.

How was land classified under Akbar’s system?

Polaj, parauti, chachar, and banjar—based on usage and fertility.

What were the main modes of revenue collection in kind?

Kankut, batai, khet-batai, and lang-batai.

Why was asamiwar maujudat survey ordered by Aurangzeb?

To ensure fair taxation and detect discrepancies at village and peasant level.

How did the flow of silver stabilize the Mughal economy?

Enabled cash-based taxation and expansion of monetary transactions.

Which trading routes brought silver into Mughal India?

Via Mocha, Basra, Red Sea ports, and overland from Central Asia and Japan.

What was the Ain-i Akbari’s primary aim?

To record imperial regulations and provide data for governance and control.

What kind of data does the mulk-abadi section of the Ain provide?

Fiscal data, troop strength, caste-wise zamindari breakdowns.

Why is the Ain not entirely reliable for pan-India analysis?

Uneven data—detailed for some regions, missing for Bengal and Orissa.

How did Abu’l Fazl ensure the authenticity of data in Ain?

Cross-verified oral accounts, used numeric-word format, and revised five times.

Which book of Ain-i Akbari includes details of mansabdars and artists?

Second book: sipah-abadi.

What influenced the skewed geographical data in the Ain?

Focus on imperial centers like Agra, less attention to peripheral provinces.

Why is the Ain considered revolutionary in medieval historiography?

It shifted focus from politics to people, economy, and social systems.

How did the Ain support state efforts in rationalizing administration?

Provided data for policy planning, taxation, military deployment.

What does the presence of shroffs in villages indicate?

Penetration of cash economy and local demand for currency exchange.

How did the Mughal state treat forest areas in revenue assessments?

Often unmeasured due to inaccessibility and low taxable productivity.

How did the monetization of zamindaris affect rural markets?

Increased cash flow, establishment of haats, and integration with town economy.