IB Psychology Flashcards

Studies, vocab, it's that simple.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Working Memory Model

A model explaining the process of short-term memory and its components.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information that confirms preconceptions.

Cultural Schema

Organized mental structures representing knowledge relevant to a particular culture.

Social Roles

Behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status in a society.

Social Identity Theory

Proposes individuals improve self-image by identifying with specific social groups.

Stereotype Threat

Apprehension that behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype.

Individualism

The degree to which a society emphasizes individual goals versus group goals.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

Stratified Sampling

Population divided into subgroups based on a characteristic relevant to the study.

Cluster Sampling

Population divided into clusters, with clusters randomly selected for the sample.

Systematic Sampling

Selecting every nth member of the population for the sample.

Informed Consent

Participants fully informed about the study before agreeing to participate.

Voluntary Participation

Participants should join the study voluntarily, without coercion.

Protection from Harm

Researchers should protect participants from physical or psychological harm.

Confidentiality

Researchers should keep participants' information confidential.

Debriefing

Researchers should explain the study to participants after completion.

Deception

Researchers should avoid deception but debrief if necessary.

Right to Withdraw

Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw from the study.

Purpose of Research

Using animals in research to understand biological and behavioral processes.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of a single individual or small group.

Survey

Obtaining self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.

Correlational Research

Examining relationships between variables.

Experimental Research

Manipulating variables to observe effects.

Longitudinal Study

Following individuals over an extended period.

Cross-Sectional Study

Comparing groups of different ages at the same time.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measuring test.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated or changed by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured or observed to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention being studied.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being studied.

Cognition

The mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

Emotion

A complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make sense of the world.

Development

The process of growth and change over time, including physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Motivation

The reason or reasons behind an individual's actions, desires, and needs.

Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences.

Personality

The unique set of characteristics, traits, and behaviors that define an individual's distinctive patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Maguire (1999)

This study used MRI scans to compare the brains of London taxi drivers to non-taxi drivers. It found that posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were significantly larger than the control subjects and the anterior hippocampi were significantly smaller. Also, the volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver.

Milner (1966)

This case study investigated the biological reasons for anterograde amnesia in patient HM. Using method triangulation, it found that memory systems are highly complex, the hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories of experiences from short-term to long-term memory, but is not where short-term or long-term memories are stored.

Fischer et al (2005)

The study looked at neural activity in people in love. They found that specific brain areas related to dopamine and reward were active when participants viewed photos of their loved ones. This suggests romantic love is linked to brain regions associated with motivation and pleasure. However, the study's small size and the direction of the relationship between love and dopamine need more research.

Frady et al (1987)

The study with 89 male prison inmates found that those with higher testosterone levels were more likely to have committed violent crimes and were perceived as tougher by their peers. Conversely, those with lower testosterone levels tended to have committed non-violent crimes and were more likely to receive parole for good behavior.

Wedekind (1995)

This study found that women prefer the smell of t-shirts worn by men with dissimilar MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex). The dissimilar immune system genes would theoretically produce offspring better able to fend off more illnesses than if the MHC genes matched. This provided support for an evolutionary argument for mate selection in humans

McDermott et al (2009)

The study looked at how the low-activity MAOA gene relates to aggression when provoked. They tested 78 male students using a computer game where they could punish partners by making them eat spicy sauce. Results showed low-activity MAOA subjects were slightly more aggressive, especially in high-provocation situations. This suggests MAOA can influence aggression depending on the level of provocation. The findings have implications for understanding aggressive behavior and decision-making.

Seligman and Maier (1967)

The study aimed to explore learned helplessness in dogs by exposing them to avoidable and unavoidable shocks. Dogs that couldn't avoid shocks showed reduced ability to escape future shocks compared to those who could. This research offers insights into learned helplessness, relevant for understanding behaviors like staying in abusive situations.

Warrington and Shallice (1970)

conducted a study on patient KF, who had brain damage from a motorcycle accident. KF had intact long-term memory but struggled with short-term memory (STM), similar to HM but with key differences. While KF had difficulty recalling lists orally (his "memory span"), he could still learn, indicating a transfer from STM to long-term memory (LTM). Through a longitudinal study, they discovered that KF had trouble remembering verbal information but not visual information. This supported Baddeley's theory of separate STM components for visual and verbal data (phonological loop). Further testing showed KF's impairment was specifically for auditory and verbal STM, not visual or non-verbal, highlighting the complexity of STM beyond the original Multi-store model.

Bartlett (1932)

This study on memory that recalling a story isn't just about replaying facts but actively reconstructing them to fit our existing understanding. Participants altered details to match their cultural expectations, making the story shorter and adding familiar elements. This suggests memory is a dynamic process influenced by our schemas. While the study had limitations, it laid the groundwork for understanding memory as a reconstructive rather than a passive process, contributing to cognitive psychology's development

Tay et al (2016)

This study aimed to assess System 1 (intuitive) and System 2 (analytical) thinking among medical students using the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). The CRT includes questions with intuitive and analytical answers, testing respondents' ability to switch to analytical thinking. For example, one question involved calculating the cost of a ball given a bat and ball cost $1.10. Results showed that about 10% of students relied mostly on System 1, while nearly half demonstrated full System 2 thinking. As students progressed through questions, more shifted to analytical thinking. The study suggests the CRT could help students understand and regulate their thinking in clinical practice.

Yuille and Cutshall (1996)

This study aimed to see if leading questions would distort eyewitness memory of a real crime scene, unlike Loftus & Palmer's lab study. Eyewitnesses of a gun shop robbery were interviewed four months after the event. Surprisingly, most were reliable, contradicting earlier research. While the study had ecological validity, it lacked replicability and generalizability due to its unique nature. Although leading questions didn't significantly distort memory, quantifying qualitative responses posed challenges, and potential researcher bias was a concern.

Wason (1960's)

confirmation bias aimed to demonstrate how people tend to confirm their existing beliefs rather than critically test hypotheses. Subjects were tasked with identifying a rule for sequences of numbers. Most participants formed a hypothesis and tested sequences that supported it, rarely trying sequences to disprove it. This confirms the tendency to seek confirmation rather than challenge assumptions. Confirmation bias can lead to overconfidence and poor decision-making, especially in critical contexts like organizations, military, and politics.

Sharot et al (2007)

The study aimed to explore the influence of biological factors on flashbulb memories, specifically related to the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Twenty-four participants from New York City on that day underwent brain imaging (fMRI) while recalling the event. Words cues were used to trigger memories, with some words linked to summer holidays or the events of 9/11. Participants closer to the World Trade Center reported more vivid memories with detailed recall and higher confidence in accuracy. Those participants also showed increased amygdala activation when recalling the event, suggesting proximity's role in engaging neural mechanisms for flashbulb memories. However, the study's correlational nature doesn't explain how amygdala activity directly attributes to flashbulb memories or why some who watched on TV also claim such memories.

Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014)

The study suggests that handwritten notes lead to better learning outcomes compared to taking notes on a laptop. This is attributed to the processing involved when writing by hand, as opposed to typing quickly on a computer. The researchers tested their theory with 109 UCLA undergraduate students, dividing them into groups using laptops or pen and paper for note-taking during lectures. Participants were later tested on the content, with those who took handwritten notes performing better. However, the study has limitations. The sample consisted of undergraduates who may lack experience in lecture note-taking, and there may be gender biases in the findings. Additionally, the artificial lecture setup without real assessment or choice of topics reduces ecological validity, even though the controlled nature allows for establishing cause and effect.

Bandura (1961)

Bobo Doll experiment explored how children learn aggression through observation. Kids who watched an adult act aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to mimic that behavior, showing that aggression can be learned through observation and modeling. This highlighted the impact of social learning on behavior, especially in children.

Eckman (1982)

studied if certain emotions are universal. He compared five cultures and the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. Showing photos of emotions, he found that happiness, anger, disgust, surprise, fear, contempt, and sadness are universally recognized, challenging the idea that emotions are purely cultural.

Gupta and Singh (1982)

The study compared love marriages and arranged marriages in India over 10 years. Initially, love marriages were more satisfying, but after 5 years, arranged marriages showed higher satisfaction, and after 10 years, the difference was even more significant. The conclusion highlighted cultural differences: Western cultures prioritize love before marriage, while others, like in India, cultivate love within the marriage.

Fagot (1978)

Investigated how parents influence gender-role development in children through observation and feedback. The study observed 24 families with children aged 20-24 months, noting behaviors and parental reactions. Boys were often left alone, received more positive responses for block play, and more negative responses for object manipulation. Girls got more positive responses for doll play but were criticized more for large motor activities. Parents favored same-sex-preferred behaviors and were more positive towards girls asking for help. The study had high ecological validity and reliability but was limited by a small, homogeneous sample and potential demand characteristics due to observation.

Lueck and Wilson (2010)

The study investigated predictors of acculturative stress in Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. Findings showed that being bilingual reduced stress, preferring only English increased it, negative treatment heightened stress, shared values with family lowered stress, and satisfaction with economic opportunities reduced stress among immigrants.

Becker et al (2002)

The study examined how the introduction of television in Fiji affected eating attitudes among teenage girls. They found a significant increase in disordered eating behaviors and a shift towards Western beauty ideals after television was introduced, indicating the influence of media on cultural perceptions of body image. However, the study's reliance on Western tests and its limited sample size in Fiji raise questions about generalizability.

Etiology

the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition

Abnormal- Biological

genetics- predisposition/ weakness to it

chemicals- neurotransmitters (neurons)/ hormones/ meds

brain abnormalities- functional or structural

Abnormal- Cognitive

remembrance of mostly bad experiences

perception of mental health

decisions that are unhealthy cognitive choices

Abnormal- Sociocultural

norms you can't achieve

pressure from peers

relationships/ trauma

Diathesis- Cup Theory

1+1 doesn't always = 2, other people's "cups" have different amounts of things and added things (environmental factors with life problems and genetics) that can cause abnormality is some but not in others

Abnormal- Treatment

Biologically: Drugs, and Brain Lesions

Psychology: Psychedelics, psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy

Eclectic therapy: combination of therapies

Eysenck Theory

Do things just go away?

Kleinman 1982

cultures experience symptoms of depression differently, what the researcher found was the Chinese participants reported physical symptoms over psychological symptoms of depression. This is important in understanding how misdiagnosis happens and the cultural impacts of mental health issues.

Witty Ticcy Ray

Case study on ____ who had sever tics that disrupted his daily life and wanted treatment mostly because society didn't accept his tics. He hated how he was on the drugs that suppressed his tics so he doesn't take them on the weekends. Demonstrates the level of wanting treatment to it's effectiveness and then also how socio-cultural norms influenced him to get treatment.

Ciapriani et al (2018)

looked at the effectiveness and side-effects of commonly used anti-depressants. Showed that the recommended anti-depressants were the least liked and the least known anti-depressants were generally the most liked.

Aaron Beck - Cognitive Theory of Depression

3 main dysfunctional beliefs--negative self schema:

Self- I'm worthless

World- Others don't like me because of said worthlessness

Future- I won't have a future, because others don't like me

Temerlin 1970

clinical psychologists watched a video of an interview with a healthy individual, one of the groups overheard a respected psychologists say he was “A very interesting man because he looked neurotic, but was actually was quite psychotic” — this changed the answers of the clinical psychologists to choose that the patient was psychotic even when they were not.

Sherif et al 1961

used boys at a summer camp to test if competition would spark prejudice and hostile actions. The competitions did and the researchers saw name-calling and vandalizing each other’s cabins and flags. The researchers fix these effects by having them work together (superordinate goal) and the negative emotions seemed to go away.

McDoom 2012

archival analysis of the transcripts of broadcasts,

one is from a place without much fighting and people got scared

the other where most of the fighting took place, created a strong us vs. them dynamic