SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguistics

The study of the relationship between language and society, explaining how our social identities, relationships, and contexts influence the way we speak

Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism?

Sociolinguistics is descriptive, meaning it doesn't judge "good" vs. "bad” versions of a language, but seeks to understand the systematic rules behind all varieties

Speech Community

A group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding language use, distinguished from other comparable groups (e.g., a town, a village, a club, a nation)

Sociolinguistic Variable

A linguistic feature (sound, word, grammatical structure) that varies in correlation with a social variable such as social class or gender

Speech Variety

A neutral term for a form of language, including the basic lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax shared by members of a group

Vernacular

The ordinary, informal, spoken form of a language or dialect, often considered lower class, less prestigious, less codified, and not promoted institutionally

The four types of speech varieties

1. The standard language (superimposed variety), 2. Sociolects (based on socioeconomic status, ethnicity, age, occupation), 3. Regional dialects, 4. Registers (functional speech varieties appropriate to particular situations)

Social Stratification

Social differentiation of language representing correlations between variations in language use and a speaker’s membership in various social groups (e.g., William Labov's NYC department store study)

Overt Prestige

Linguistic prestige associated with standard, institutionalized varieties of a language

Covert Prestige

Positive evaluation of non-standard forms within a community, signaling solidarity and authenticity

Social Network Analysis (SNA)

The investigation of social structures through the use of networks and graph theory, where structures are represented in terms of nodes (individual actors) and edges (relationships)

Principal Component(s) Analysis

A statistical quantitative technique used to reduce the dimensions of complex datasets by transforming variables into a new set of uncorrelated variables called principal components

Non-standard grammatical features [Social Meaning]

Grammatical forms often stigmatized in formal/written contexts, associated with working-class speech, specific regions, or informal solidarity

Multiple Negation (Negative Concord)

A non-standard feature (e.g., "I don't have no money") heavily stigmatized as "uneducated" in prescriptive grammar, but systematic, rule-governed, and a strong marker of working-class and ethnic dialects like AAVE

Past Tense Analogy

A non-standard feature widespread in many vernacular dialects (e.g., "I seen him yesterday" or "She done the work") where forms like "seen" serve as a shibboleth marking informal speech

Pronoun Case in Coordinated Subjects/Objects

The use of forms like "Me and him are going" (vernacular) or "She gave it to my brother and I" (a hypercorrection often attempted by speakers overshooting the formal standard)

Genitive of Negation with Inanimates (Simplification)

The use of "У меня нет время" instead of "У меня нет времени", considered a grammatical error associated with less formal education or casual speech

Agreement with Numerals (Simplification)

The use of forms like "Более пятьсот столов" instead of "Более пятиста столов", which is a common feature of vernacular marked as non-standard

Use of metoniemes 'ихний', 'евоный' (Non-Standard Possessives)

A highly stigmatized and salient feature of vernacular speech that analogically creates adjective-like forms, serving as a strong marker of uneducated speech

Non-standard phonological features [Social Meaning]

The most immediate markers of regional or social background, which can carry both overt stigma and covert prestige

Dropping of Postvocalic /r/ (Non-rhoticity)

The pronunciation of car as [ka:] or hard as [ha:d], which is standard in the UK (RP) but regional in the US (NYC, Boston, Southern) and stratified by class in NYC according to Labov

'g-dropping' / Alveolarization of (ng)

The pronunciation of walking as [wɔːkɪn] instead of [wɔːkɪŋ], representing a universal casual speech variant where high use in formal contexts is stigmatized

Vowel Mergers (Cot-Caught Merger)

The merging of /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ so cot and caught sound identical [kɑt], acting primarily as a regional marker in the Western U.S., Canada, and Eastern New England

Fricative [tɕ] instead of Plosive [ɡ]

The pronunciation of "год" as [tɕot] instead of [ɡot], which is characteristic of Southern Russian or Ukrainian-accented dialects and stereotyped as rural or less educated

Akan 'ye vs. Okan 'ye

The phonetic distinction where strong Okan 'ye is the primary marker of a Northern Russian regional origin, carrying a "folk" or rustic association in Moscow

Prothetic Vowels & Consonant Clusters

The insertion of a prothetic vowel to break an initial cluster (e.g., ['afstrlɛtɕa] for встреча), which is a feature of very casual, rapid, or vernacular registers

Gender-exclusive differentiation

Radically different speech varieties used strictly by men and women

Gender-variable differentiation

The relative frequency of different linguistic forms in the speech of men and women

Exclusive languages

Languages where it is a strict grammatical requirement to use form X if you are of gender Y (e.g., Caucasian languages, Historical Garifuna)

Near-Exclusive languages

Languages where using form X if you are of gender Y is strongly sanctioned by powerful sociolinguistic norms (e.g., Japanese/Korean Honorifics)

Preferential languages

Languages where women, on average and in certain contexts, statistically tend to use more tag questions, standard forms, or specific adjectives (e.g., most Western languages)

Phonology (Gender)

Different pronunciations based on gender, found in regions like the Caucasus

Lexicon (Gender)

Different words used based on gender, historically found in languages like Garifuna

Grammar (Gender)

Different inflectional patterns used based on gender, as seen in Yanyuwa

Pragmatics (Gender)

Different particles and politeness strategies used based on gender, typical in Japanese and Korean

Euphemism

The softening of a dispreferred term (e.g., "passed away" vs. "died"), often used for taboo topics like death, sex, and bodily functions

Dysphemism

The direct conceptual opposite of a euphemism, often deliberately flippant or grotesque (e.g., "kicked the bucket", "bought the farm")

Slang

An informal, often ephemeral lexicon that marks in-group membership, typically by age or subculture (e.g., ghosting, rizz)

Jargon & Argot

Specialized vocabulary used either by a profession to describe technical concepts (jargon: morphophonemics, API) or by a closed group to conceal meaning from outsiders (argot: шконка, вольна)

Dialectology

The study of regional linguistic variation using field interviews and linguistic atlases to map isoglosses and bundles of isoglosses

Dialect vs. Language

A distinction often determined by power and politics rather than pure linguistic differences, encapsulated in the phrase "A language is a dialect with an army and a navy"

Accent

Linguistic variation restricted to pronunciation only (e.g., a Scottish accent using Standard English grammar)

Dialect

Linguistic variation encompassing grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation combined (e.g., using "y'all" or multiple negation)

Pidgins

A simplified contact language with no native speakers, developed for limited communication like trade, characterized by simplified grammar and a limited lexicon

Creole

A stable, natural language developed from a pidgin that has been acquired by a new generation as their first language

Creolization

The linguistic process where a pidgin develops a full, complex grammatical system and becomes a creole

The Creole Continuum

The range of speech varieties in a creole community, extending from the basilect (most creole-like) to the acrolect (closest to the standard language)

Style

The presentation of language based on the addressee and relationship, functioning as a general marker of formality to answer "How should I say this to you?"

Register

The specialized type of language used based on the social activity, context, and purpose, utilizing unique jargon and conventionalized structures to answer "What language do we use for this?"