Chapter 16: The Scientific Revolution

Geocentric Theory

Based on the ideas of Christianity, Aristotle, and Ptolemy, said that spheres revolved concentrically with Earth at its center.

Heliocentric Theory

Made by Copernicus, said that the sun was at the center of the universe and not the Earth. This ruffled the Catholic Church, especially the Protestants because it created uncertainty.

Ptoemy

Part of the old tradition astronomy, believed and created Geocentrism.

Copernicus

Realized Ptolemy's system was too complicated and that observations didn't coincide with it, so he created the Heliocentric model. Published it a few years before his death in fear of ridicule. Still thought orbits were circular, which kept his math as very complicated too.

Empiricism

Empirical data, gathered observations, work is done based on data rather than logical reasoning.

Tyco Brahe

A Danish astronomer who collected details and precise observations. Rejected Geocentrism but didn't believe the Earth could move.

Johannes Kepler

An astronomer interested in Hermetic magic, created his three laws of planetary motion after gaining access to Brahe's data. Realized the orbits of planets were elliptical, the speed of orbit changes, and that planets with larger orbits are slower than those with smaller orbits

Galileo Galilei

Used the telescope to see craters on the moon and moons of Jupiter. Disproved the old idea that the other planets were ethereal crystalline spheres. Was persecuted by the church twice and was forced to recant, getting put on house arrest and setting back scientific discoveries in Italy. Studied mechanics afterwards and came up with the Principle of Inertia.

Isaac Newton

English mathematician and scientist who wrote his book Principia. In it was the mathematical proof of the universal law of gravitation and the 3 laws of motion. He also invented calculus. With his universal law of gravitation, he combined the works of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and said that the law of gravitation was universal., applying to everything in the universe.

Galen (Old Medical Ideas)

Relied on animal dissection to get a picture of human anatomy and believed there were 2 separate blood systems, one which controlled muscular activity and flowed through the arteries and one for digestive functions that flowed through the veins. Blood originated from the liver, four bodily humors, diseases were imbalances of humors. Examined urine to find imbalances and purged and bled people.

4 Bodily Humors

blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm. Imbalances caused disease, figured out through the examination of urine

Medical Advances

Paracelsus realized chemical imbalances causes disease. Vesalius dissected humans and had a more accurate idea of anatomy. Blood originated in the heart. Harvey realized there was just one blood system and circulated throughout the body.

Margaret Cavendish

Duchess of Newcastle who was a writer and had access to an informal education. Was a prolific writer

German Female Scientists

Women who participated in craft production could more easily be involved in observational sciences like entomoly and astronomy. For example

Maria Sibylla Merian: worked in her father's printing workshop and observed plants and animals

Maria Winklemann: An achieved astronomer, however had difficulties with the Berlin Academy because of typical misogynistic views.

Debates on the Nature of Women

Most opinions came from men, who traditionally considered women as basic, easily swayed, and insatiable. Women who joined debates rejected this, arguing that they also had rational minds. However, new anatomy defended the traditional views. Since females had smaller skulls and larger pelvic areas, they were less intelligent and meant for childbearing. This caused midwifery to be taken over by males. So the Scientific Revolution did nothing but reaffirm traditional ideas on women.

Rationality and Descartes

"I think therefore I am", separated mind and body. Used reason to understand the material world and rational deduction: start with truths and create conclusions from it.

Francis Bacon

Father of empiricism, relying on experiments and observation for knowledge. Start with specific observations to form general conclusions. Control and dominate nature, liked practical science.

Scientific Method

Unification of Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalism by Newton led to the Scientific Method. Begin with scientific observation and experiments then arrive at general concepts. Deduce new knowledge from those by testing and verifying. Answers the question of how and not why.

Conflicts with Religion and Attempts to harmonize

Churches opposed the scientific revolution because it caused intellectual's lives to become more secular. Some like Pascal tried to harmonize the two, saying it was better to bet on God existing than not.

Scientific academies

The English Royal Society and French Royal Society started from informal meetings and eventually were recognized by the kings of their respective countries. They were recognized because it was a way to build prestige and show off.

affect on society

Increased the gap between upper educated and lower class, science offered new ways to exploit resources, science was part of elite culture and not for commoners, and militaries could be boosted by scientific technology. Others linked conceptions of the natural world to social stability.