Core content - League of Nations: extent of success

History 2025 Summer term

What were the weaknesses of the organisation in the League?

1. Lack of major powers

2. No permanent army

3. Decisions had to be unanimous

4. Dominated by France and Britain

5. Failure to act against aggressors

6. Weak sanctions

Why was the lack of major powers in the League a weakness?

The USA never joined (despite Wilson being the one to propose the idea), and without the USA the League lacked economic and military power after being weakened from WWI - lacked legitimacy and loss of credibility

Germany only joined in 1926, and USSR in 1934 but was distrusted by Western powers and expelled in 1939 - Germany’s initial lack in presence would further fuel resentment after the ToV

The League appeared as a ‘Victors Club’ dominated by France and Britain

How did the lack of a military force weaken the League?

The League had no proper army, relying on countries to contribute troops which they often refused to do

• Manchuria - The League condemned Japan’s actions but did not send troops, allowing Japan to ignore the League

• Abyssinia - League failed to stop Italy’s invasion because France and Britain were afraid of war

Why did unanimous decisions make the League ineffective?

The Assembly and Council required all members to agree before action could be taken.

This led to delays and indecision, even in urgent matters and allowed aggressive countries to expand their power (e.g Manchuria)

For example, during the Abyssinia Crisis, lengthy debates meant no timely action was taken against Mussolini.

Describe the structure of the league

Assembly - met once a year, all member states had one vote, decisions had to be unanimous

Council - met more often, had permanent members (Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and rotating members

Permanent Court of International Justice - Settled disputes, gave legal advice.

Secretariat: Civil service of the League, carried out decisions.

Special commissions: For refugees, slavery, health, etc.

How many members were in the League?

63

When was the League of Nations created?

January 1920

Reasons for opposition to the league in the USA

America - ancestors: The League was supposed to enforce the TOV, but some Americans (esp the millions who had German ancestors) hated the Treaty as they believed it was too harsh

• If the League imposed sanctions it might be American trade and business that suffered the most

• Some feared that the League would be dominated by France of Britain, and would be called to defend their empires (they were anti-empires)

• Some feared that joining the League meant sending US soldiers to settle every little conflict around the world, and no one wanted more casualties after WWI

What was Article 10 of the League?

Collective security by acting collectively, the members of the League could prevent war by defending the lands and interests of all nations. Basically attack on one state is an attack on all.

Why was the initial absence of Germany and Russia bad?

It made the League look like a “Club for the winners” and undermined the League’s credibility

What were the goals of the League of Nations?

Ant - Discourage Aggression

Colonies - Encourage co-operation

Don’t - Encourage disarmament

Like Cars - Improve Living Conditions

What did the Secretariat do and what were its weaknesses?

It kept records of League meetings and prepared reports for the different agencies of the League.

• Not much impact/lack of power to enforce decisions

  • Understaffed and disorganised - slow to process information

What was the ILO and what were its weaknesses?

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) brought together employers, governments and workers’ representatives once a year.

It aimed to improve working conditions throughout the world, collecting statistics and information and tried to persuade member countries to adopt its suggestions

• It intruded on other countries’ businesses

• Lack of enforcement - they couldn’t force the countries to abide by their suggestions

What was the Permanent Court of International Justice and what were its weaknesses?

This was meant to help settle disputes between countries peacefully. It was made up of judges from the member countries. If it was asked, the Court would give a decision on border dispute between two countries. It also gave legal advice to the Assembly or Council.

• No way of ensuring that countries followed its ruling - they didn’t have to

List the League of Nations Commissions

1. The Mandates Commission

2. The Refugees Committee

3. The Slavery Committee

4. The Health Committee

What did the Mandates Commission do?

It was made up of teams of experts that reported on how people in mandates (territories) were being treated, and made sure Britain and France acted in the interests of the people of that territory and not in self-interest

What did the Refugees Committee do?

Many refugees who fled from area of conflict after WWI had no homes to go to - this committee assisted refugees and provided them with legal + political protection.

What was created by the league for refugees after WWI?

The Nansen Passport was created for stateless refugees, allowing them to leave or enter a country and acted as international refugee travel documents

What did the Slavery Commission do?

It helped to abolish slavery around the world, especially East Africa and tried to help workers who weren’t technically slaves but treated like so.

What did the Health Committee do?

It attempted to deal with dangerous diseases and educate people about health and sanitation. It brought experts together and worked with charities to collect statistics about health issues

What were the League’s humanitarian works?

1. Refugees

2. Working Conditions

3. Health

4. Slavery

What were the successes/failures of the Refugees Committee?

• 400k refugees were returned home

• When war led to a refugee crisis in Turkey 1922, hundreds of thousands had to be housed in refugee camps. The League acted quickly to stamp out cholera, smallpox, and dysentery.

• The league was often short of funds, and work became more difficult in 1930’s as international situations became tenser and the authority of the League weakened

What were the successes/failures of the ILO?

• Banned poisonous white lead from paint

• Limited max hours of work for small children

• Campaigned for employers to improve working conditions

• Impeded by lack of funds and power

• Could not do much more than ‘name and shame’ countries/organisations that broke its regulations

Successes of the Health Committee

• Collected statistical information and spread good practice

• Sponsored research at institutes in Singapore, London, and Denmark

• Fought diseases like leprosy and malaria

• Still present to this day in the form of the World Health Organisation

Successes of the Slavery Committee

• Freed 200k slaves in British owned Sierra-Leone

• Organised raids against slave owners and traders in Burma

• Challenged use of forced labour to build the Tanganyika railway in Africa, bringing the death rate down from 50% to 4%

List three successes and failures of the League’s border disputes each

1. Aaland Islands

2. Upper Silesia

3. Bulgaria

1. Vilna

2. Corfu

3. Invasion of the Ruhr

Describe the events of Vilna

After WWI, Poland and Lithuania emerged as independent nations, but their borders were contested.

The Polish-Lithuanian War began in May 1919 - November 1920, and had many skirmishes and border disputes, with both countries claiming the city of Vilnius as their own.

How did the League get involved with Poland and Lithuania? What were the results?

The League attempted to mediate the conflict and establish a border line, but the situation remained unstable.

In October 1920, the Polish army staged a mutiny and seized the Vilnius region, leading to Polish occupation of Vilnius

Poland ignored the League and the dispute over Vilnius was only resolved in October 1939 when Lithuania regained control through a mutual assistance deal with the Soviets.

Describe the events of Corfu

One of the boundaries that had to be sorted out after the war was the border between Greece and Albania.

The Conference of Ambassadors was given this job and they appointed Tellini, an Italian general to supervise it.

On August 27th 1923, while surveying the Greek side of the frontier area, Tellini and his team were ambushed and killed.

Mussolini was furious and blamed the Greek government for the murder, and bombarded and occupied the Greek island of Corfu on 31st of August. 15 people were killed.

How did the League get involved with Corfu?

Greece appealed for help, and the League acted swiftly.

By 7th of September, they condemned Mussolini’s actions and suggested that Greece pay compensation

Mussolini refused to let the matter rest and insisted the dispute had to be settled by the Conference of Ambassadors, saying that the Council of the League was not competent to deal with the issue, threatening to leave the League

Why did the Corfu dispute fail?

Britain and France had opposing views.

Britain did not accept the Italian case and were prepared to send warships to force Mussolini out of Corfu

The French completely disagreed and backed the Italians, probably because their forces were tied up in occupation of the Ruhr coalfields and could not tackle a dispute with Italy as well

Britain was not prepared to act without the French, and they came to an agreement that favoured Italy.

Greece had to pay an indemnity, apologise and salute the Italian flag

Describe the events of the Aaland islands

The Aaland islands (1921) had been inhabited primarily by Swedish-speaking people, and had been part of Finland since 1809.

After WWI, the islands became a point of contention, with Sweden arguing for their inclusion in their territory and the islanders desiring self-determination and reunification with Sweden

How did the League deal with the Aaland islands dispute?

The League investigated the dispute and ruled that the islands should remain part of Finland, but with special rights for the Swedish-speaking residents

Both Sweden and Finland accepted the League’s decision, which was formalised in the Aaland Convention in 1921

Describe the events of the border dispute in Bulgaria

The conflict stemmed from a border dispute and ethnic tensions in the Petrich region, which had been a source of contention since the Treaty of Neuilly in 1919, which required Bulgaria to give up territories after WWI

In October 1925, a shooting incident on the Greco-Bulgarian border near the town of Petrich involving the death of a Greek captain and a sentry led to a Greek invasion of Bulgaria

What actions did the League take to settle Bulgaria?

Bulgaria appealed to the League for help, and the League condemned Greece and ordered them to withdraw their troops from Bulgaria.

Greece complied and withdrew its troops from Bulgarian territory after being under pressure

The League’s commission investigated the incident and proposed a settlement that included a border redrawing and Greece was order to pay £45,000 in compensation

What was the name of the international agreement that limited the size of certain countries’ navies?

The 1921 Washington Conference made USA, Britain, France and Japan to limit the size of their navies

What was the name of the Treaty that allowed USSR and Germany to re-establish their diplomatic relations?

1922 Rapallo Treaty

What was the name of the International agreement that had the USA lending money to Germany?

1924 Dawes plan - USA lent money to help it pay reparations bill to avert an economic crisis

What Treaty was greeted with great enthusiasm?

The 1925 Locarno Treaties - Germany accepted its Western borders as set out in the Treaty of Versailles, and allowed them to join the League

Which pact had 65 nations agreeing not to use force to settle disputes?

1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact (aka pact of paris)

Which international agreement reduced Germany’s reparations payment

1929 Young plan

How did the Great Depression affect Japan?

It threatened to bankrupt Japan - its main export was silk to the USA, but they were buying less silk, so Japan had less money to buy food and raw materials as they were very isolated.

All of its leaders were army generals, and they took over weaker countries that they needed, starting by invading Manchuria (China) in 1931

How did the Great Depression affect Britain?

They were unwilling to help sort out international disputes while its economy was bad.

When Japan invaded Manchuria it did nothing - no economic sanctions or troops to protect Manchuria

How did the Great Depression affect Germany?

There was unemployment, poverty, and chaos. Its weak leaders seemed unable to do anything and many Germans began supporting the Nazi Party with Hitler being appointed as chancellor in 1933.

He was not good news for international peace, and openly planned to invade Germany’s neighbours and to win back the land they had lost from the ToV

How did the Great Depression affect Italy?

Economic problems encouraged Mussolini to try and build an overseas empire to distract people’s attention from the difficulties the government faced.

What were the events that led to the invasion of Manchuria?

In the 1930’s, Japan controlled the Manchurian railway. In September 1931 they claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway, and attacked the Chinese army. The Chinese did not fight back because they knew the Japanese just wanted an excuse to invade Manchuria.

From January - May 1932, the attacked and captured the city of Shanghai in China itself.

By February 1932, the Japanese had conquered the whole of Manchuria, with thousands of Chinese soldiers and civilians being killed

What did the league do after Japan’s invasion of Manchuria?

China appealed to the League, and they sent a delegation to Manchuria to see what was happening.

The report came a year later and concluded that Manchuria should be returned to China.

What happened at the Special Assembly of the League?

In February 1933, 40 nations voted that Japan should withdraw. Only Japan voted against it, but instead of pulling out of Manchuria they walked out of the league and invaded China in 1933

What happened after Japan took control of Manchuria?

They set up a Japanese-controlled state called Manchuko, run by the former Emperor of China

What did Japan do after leaving the League?

In 1933, Japan invaded Jehol, the Chinese province next to Manchuria

Why didn’t the League do anything in the Manchurian crisis?

They lacked a proper army to enforce their rules, and took so long to make a decision it allowed Japan to establish a strong military force in Manchuria

Britain and France also acted in self-interest and as America (a main trading partner of Japan) was not a member of the League there wouldn’t be much impact in economic sanctions, and Britain wanted to keep trading with Japan.

The League was more focused on avoiding war rather than maintaining peace, so they did not stop arms sales as they feared it would make Japan declare war.

What was the goal of the World Disarmament Conference (1932–1934)?

To get countries, especially in Europe, to reduce their armed forces and weapons after WWI in order to maintain peace.

Why did Germany walk out of the Disarmament Conference in 1933?

Germany demanded equal treatment in arms levels with Britain and France. When this was refused and Hitler came to power, Germany withdrew from the Conference and the League of Nations.

How did the Great Depression contribute to the failure of disarmament?

Countries were focused on their own economic recovery, often through rearmament to reduce unemployment and stimulate industry, making cooperation unlikely.

Why was mistrust between countries a problem for disarmament?

Countries feared that others wouldn't stick to any agreements, so they were unwilling to reduce their own weapons, especially with the rise of aggressive regimes.

How did the League’s structure and power affect disarmament efforts?

The League had no military power to enforce decisions, and all decisions had to be unanimous, slowing action and making it ineffective.

What role did Hitler’s foreign policy play in the failure of disarmament?

Hitler's policy focused on rearming Germany and breaking the Treaty of Versailles, which he began openly after leaving the League in 1933.

What were the consequences of the failure of disarmament?

It encouraged countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan to rearm aggressively, increasing tensions and contributing to the outbreak of WWII.

What caused the Abyssinian Crisis of 1935–36?

Italy wanted to build an empire in Africa and restore Roman glory.

Dec 1934: Clash between Italian and Ethiopian troops at the Wal-Wal Oasis (disputed territory) gave Mussolini a pretext to invade.

Mussolini also wanted revenge for Italy’s 1896 defeat at Adowa and to distract from domestic problems.

What was the Stresa Pact and how did it affect the League’s actions?

Signed in April 1935 between Britain, France, and Italy, it was meant to oppose German rearmament and maintain European peace.

Some believe Britain and France agreed to turn a blind eye in return for Mussolini’s support, as Italy would be a key ally against Germany

When did Italy invade Abyssinia and how was it carried out?

Italy invaded on 3 October 1935.

Used modern weaponry, tanks, and chemical weapons (e.g. poison gas) on civilians and soldiers.

Abyssinia’s forces were poorly armed; Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help.

How did the League of Nations respond to the Italian invasion?

Condemned Italy and imposed economic sanctions on arms, metal, and rubber—but excluded oil and did not close the Suez Canal (controlled by Britain and France) out of fear of provoking Italy and causing another war and feared American disapproval and economic damage in Britain

The League had a clear chance to act, but responded too slowly and allowed Italy to build up supplies

What was the Hoare–Laval Pact and why was it significant?

A secret plan made in December 1935 by British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare and French PM Pierre Laval.

Offered Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia, including the richest regions, in exchange for peace.

When leaked to the press, it caused massive public outrage, seen as betrayal of the League.

Led to collapse of British public support for the League and undermined sanctions.

How did the Abyssinian Crisis affect the League of Nations?

• Showed the League was powerless against strong nations, especially if they were permanent members.

• Britain and France acted in self-interest and did not uphold collective security.

• Encouraged Hitler—he remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936 while the League was distracted.

  • League lost all credibility; smaller nations stopped trusting it for protection.

What were the consequences of the Hoare-Laval pact?

The real damage was to the sanctions discussions, and they lost all momentum. The question about whether to ban oil sales was further delayed. When they did eventually manage too, it was too late and Mussolini had already taken over large parts of Abyssinia.

The Americans were even more disgusted with the dithering of the French and British than they had been before and so blocked a move to support the League’s sanctions.

• American oil producers stepped up their exports to Italy.