LA 222 Exam 2 Islamic Gardens and Architecture

Mausoleum-Madrasa of Sultan Salih

Cairo; 13th Century; Ayyubid; Madrasa and Mausoleum

Had 4 iwans, represented 4 branches of Islamic Law

skewed facade, with keel arches emphasizing the height

Cursive is now used to replace the kufic writing previously used

Patron's (Sultan’s) tomb was added to the dome by Queen Shajae al-Durr (Tree of Pearls)

Tomb projects outward→ pushes itself into the street to draw attention, example of architectural communication

• Insistence on visibility → launched practice of attaching the founder’s mausoleum to his endowed foundation

  • Relationship between deceased patron and major public work

Tomb of Shajar al-Durr (Tree of Pearls)

Cairo, Egypt; 13th Century; Mamluk; Tomb

Tomb of Cairo's Sultan-Queen

• built by female sultan who rose from slavery; became the last Ayyubid and first Mamluk to rule

• tomb located across from female saints’ tombs

• keel profile of the dome

• mihrab bears mosaic that refers to her name; only mosaic in Egypt in this period

Mosque-Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Hasan

-Cairo; 14th Century; Mamluk; Madrasa/Monument

madrasa and congregational mosque, and contained the mosque of the founder

skewed facade to fit in the space

4-iwan plan and each school has its own iwan and courtyard surrounded by residential rooms

Public was able to enter the iwan to pray without disrupting others

Qibla iwan was a raised platform for reading the quran, it was very large (dikka) —> Tomb of Sultan Hasan is behind the Qibla wall (sacrilegious)

Qubbat Barudiyyin Marrakesh

Morocco; 12th Century; Almoravid; Monument (fountain)

The small structure used to be a fountain for a nearby congregational mosque; used in the act of washing before prayer

• criss crossing pattern on dome reflects Mosque of Cordoba

• Rectangular pavilion is crowned by a highly decorative, ribbed, slightly pointed dome surrounded by crenellation

Giralda Minaret

Seville; 12th Century; Almohad; Mosque

• Little remains today, mostly replaced by a Gothic Cathedral in the 16th century → Today is now used as a bell tower in the cathedral

• majestic rectangle that soars 66 meters skyward, originally topped by a smaller rectangle and a finial of four golden globes; call to prayer made from an internal ramp

• Brick structure → measured symmetrical program

  • Sebka: An ornamental screen or panel formed by the repeated interlacing of arches

Mosque of Hassan Rabat

Rabat; 12th Century; Almohad; Mosque

Was never finished, minaret was ⅔ done (40 meters high but meant to be 70 meters), the minaret was meant to represent power and strength

Patron intended for the mosque to be the tallest mosque in the west

Had 3 courtyards instead of one, probably to allow light and air into prayer halls

Had 3 qibla isles, also had sebka panel of interlacing arches

Alhambra Palace

Granada; 13-14th Centuries

• Hilltop Citadel where the Nasrids reigned

• palace city’s high location on a Hill, obtaining a reliable source for water became the first necessity

  • Brought up to the palace by being drawn off the river at points far upstream in the mountains

• Paved road runs perimeter of the walls (works similar to a servants path that would be hidden inside a mansion/palace to hide)

Comares Tower Palace (Alhambra)

Granada; 14th century; Nasrid; Palace

• Spaces designed to impress

• massive pool down the middle

• Court of Myrtles —> Heart of Comares Palace, centered around a greek pool, arched galleries → combination often seen in houses of nobles and wealthy residents of the city

• Hall of the Ambassadors —> a gathering place designed to impress ambassadors, wooden vault imbedded with mother of pearls to replicate the heavens

Lions Palace (Court of the Lions, the Alhambra)

Granada; 14th century; Nasrid; Palace

Became residential and semi-private; Water channels led to a central water fountain with 12 lions holding the fountain up (lions represented power and had a religious affiliation)

• meanings including sovereignty, water, and agriculture

• quadrants were paved, possibly white marble or tiled

• Stucco in the arches is not solid, but pierced

• Two adjacent Halls: Hall of the Abencerrajes and Hall of the Two Sisters

  • have basins from which water flows across the paved floor and steps down into the courtyard to run toward the central fountain

  • Vaults with dazzlingly starbursts of complex muqarnas

The Alhambra’s Partal Palace

Granada; 14th century; Nasrid; Palace

• Partal Palace hugs the enclosure walls, enjoying interior gardens and views to the outside

• Torre del Mihrab was a private prayer space for the residents of the palace

• There are windows looking out to the view, possibly distracting to prayer

• The archeological traces of the pools were repurposed into a garden

The Generalife Palace

Granada, Spain; 14th century; Nasrid; Palace

• Served as a resort for the residents of the Alhambra; purely residential, not administrative function

• The original part of the palace is a court with channels, the Acequia court

  • The Acequia Court was a level below the gardens, and had access to the gardens through arches

  • an elongated chahar bagh, and has ripples in the water, with high water pressure through gravitational force

  • openings for views onto the lower gardens/Alhambra

Attarine Madrasa

Fez; 14th Century; Marinid; Madrasa

• Has students with dorm rooms on the upper level

• Organized around an open courtyard and had a prayer hall; arcades from columns along each side —> gave illusion of a much larger space

• Colorful tile and stucco wall fabric → bears resemblance to the  halls of the Alhambra Palace in Nasrid

  • Kingdoms were in close proximity; used some of the same artisans

  • Zellij: zellij tile is glazed, cut into geometric shapes, and then reassembled like mosaic

Bou Inania Madrasa

Fez, Morocco; 14th Century; Marinid; Madrasa

• Large, open courtyard with dorms on the upper level and lecture halls on the left and right (layout was well throughout to avoid unnecessary entrances into courtyard or from public)

• Corbelled arches were present here too, so they were fake arches

• A stream ran through the building; crossing it to get to the prayer hall

• Could enter the prayer hall from either the courtyard or the base of the mihrab

• The mosque had a clock on the outside of the qibla wall, and the minaret is where the call to prayer was said from, after one would climb up

Chella Funerary Complex

Rabat; 14th century; Marinid; Minaret

• Marinid Funerary precinct with mosques and madrasa outside of Rabat

• Burial grounds for well-to-do members of society, association with royal family

  • Marinids were buried in inner enclosure

• Inner mosque was a smaller hypostyle

• Minaret: Echoes form and ornament of minarets in the same region; stone rather than brick

Tomb of the Samanids Bukhara

Bukhara; 10th century; Samanids; Tomb

• A textile aesthetic is evident, similar to the Kaaba (Hazar-baf)

• Open on all four sides, opposition to Muslim doctrine that opposed tomb building

  • Patron could pretend its not an enclosed building, an open air canopy

• Architect is said to have mashed elements together but didn’t know how they worked

• Complex transition zone (square base —> 8-sided drum —> 16-sided band —> round dome)

Reasons to build a tomb

Tombs give permanent forms to the record of humans, known as the occupant's name

Sons had political reasons for making tombs for their fathers

Each dynasties had a family tree connection, display wealth, and assert presence

Minaret of Jam

Jam; 12th Century; Ghurid; Minaret

• Not attached to mosque; stands in a lonely western Afghanistan valley; instead a possible victory monument( quran verse)

• Hazar-baf brickwork, muqarnas cornice

• New use of blue tile —> foundation inscription

• Other ornamental pieces are pisces of the Quran, but aren’t “completed” as it was expected to be basic knowledge

• Meant to be more recognizable than reading/legible

Ribat i-Shara Caravanserai

on a road in Iran; 12th century; Saljuq; Inn

1. One doorway, home for merchants, protection against attacks, 

2. Inner outer area; inner for people to stay, outer for animals, etc.

3. 4-iwan plan (2 different ones to organize space)

4. More popular → trade routes, sponsorship of trade

5. Pishtaq Portal → normalized in Caravanserais

   1. Ribat-i Sharaf, Iran early 12th Saljuq dynasty

      1. Inns, built at regular intervals by the state to promote trade (30 kms, 18 miles, 9 hrs)

      2. Waqf endowments

      3. Monumental pishtaq portal (sign of welcome)

      4. Double enclosure with only one door for security

      5. Cross-axial 4-iwan plan

Masjid-i Jami of Isfahan (Congregational mosque of Isfahan)

Isfahan; 10th onwards; Saljuq; Mosque

• Masjid-i Jami of Isfahan, Saljuq, 10th century onwards

• Congregational mosque that was reconstructed on the 4-iwan plan with each iwan faced by a pishtaq (Iwans in the arcades around the courtyard)

• Mihrab dome (based on the number 8) and north dome (based on the number 5) reflect political competition, ,realized through geometrical expertise

• Pishtaq, rises above rest of the building, double small minarets

Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Salih

Cairo, 13th Century

• Structure transitions from square base to round dome 

• Sultan Salih’s tomb was the first instance of a tomb within the walled city for a secular patron

• Launched the practice of attaching the founders mausoleum to his endowed foundation

The Alhambra

Granada, 13th-14th centuries, Nasrid

•  Not one palace but several dovetailed together

• Enclosure wall of more than 1700 linear meters

  • Mexuar - council chamber

  • Cuarto Dorado - where business and government matters were handled

  • Court of the Myrtles 

  • Hall of the Ambassadors

  • Court of the Lions - heart of the lions palace, center of courtyard is extraordinary fountain consisting of large, shallow stone basin balanced on haunches of 12 white stone lions

  • Hall of the Two Sisters - hold basins from which water flows into central courtyard → central fountain

  • Lindaraja Mirador - small, elegant chamber 

  • Partal Palace and small Torre del Mihrab (mosque) - oldest surviving palace within the Alhambra

Attarine Madrasa

Fez, 14th Century, Maranid

• “Madrasa of the Perfume Sellers”

• Stucco wall bears some resemblance to the halls of Alhambra Palace

• Large portal leading to an entrance vestibule, latrines, courtyard, prayer hall and residential rooms (for students)

• Central rectangular courtyard was ornamented with zellij (glazed ceramic piecework)

Bou Inania Madrasa

Fez, 14th Century, Marinid

• The most impressive of the Maranid madrasas

• Complex served as a madrasa for about 100 students

• Also a congregational mosque

• Lots of carved stucco used for sebka ornament as well as inscriptions

• Most arches surrounding the courtyard are corbelled arches 

• Had Fez’s principal clock – important device used for daily prayer and time of fasting

Chella

Funerary complex, Rabat, 14th c. Marinid

• Built on the grounds of a roman town (sala colonia)

• Possible that this complex held a madrasa or may have been intended as a retreat for warrior monks

• Residential rooms, places for study, and an area dedicated for prayer in inner enclosure with a mosque and tombs

• Merinid patron was buried here after he died on the battle field

• Walled rectangular enclosure within a larger site enclosure the shape of an irregular trapezoid

Great Mosque of Djenne

Mali; 13th century - Present; Mali; Mosque

1. Mudbrick construction (rammed earth or pise) largest mudbrick construction in the world

2. Renewed annually, raising question of originality

3. Shows islams reach into sub-saharan africa thru trans-Saharan trade routes

Tomb of the Samanids

Bukhara, 10th Century; Central Asian Dynasties

• Founded by Ismail, the third and most important of the Samanid rulers

• Tomb must have served as the centerpiece of a larger family funerary precinct

• Square base, open on all four sides with no evidence that doors were ever intended to fill the apertures

• Brick is both the material of construction & ornament 

Exterior hazar-baf brickwork has the appearance of weaving

Arab-Ata Mausoleum

Tim, 10th Century, Central Asian Dynasties

• Dome-on Square plan (typical for tombs)

• New facade element: pishtaq

• Articulated squinches of interior transition zone (typical for tombs and domed chambers)

Gunbad-i Qabus

Gurgan, 11th Century, Central Asian Dynasties

• Built by a ruler with shi’ite tendencies and highly cultivated tastes in literature & the arts

• 51-meter-high tower, built on an artificial hill; Cylindrical base → star-shaped (flanged) brick tower

• Only ornament is two bands of inscription (one above door, one below roof)

• The sultans body was preserved in a glass coffin and suspended on chains, where the sun could strike it through the towers eastern door

Lashkari Bazar

Southern Afghanistan. 11th-12th c (Ghaznavid & Ghurid)

• Large palatine complex, included markets, a mosque, palaces with stately reception halls, and pleasure gardens

• After the fall of the Ghaznavids, the Ghurid successors sacked, rebuilt, inhabited, and added to this site

• Our understanding of its various halls and courtyards is complicated by its ruined state

• 4-iwan courtyard plan used for the palace

• Reception Walls: peopled with frescoes depicting a life-sized armed guard of about 60 figures

  • representation—and symbolic augmentation—of the actual body guards once stationed there (directed towards ruler’s throne)

Ribat-i Sharaf

Nishapur-Merv road, Iran, early 12th c

• Built along a busy road, welcome sight to the approaching caravan

• Pishtaq portal marks center of the facade

• Outer courtyard utilized four-iwan plan 

• Entire building was secured by a single, well guarded entrance

• The Sultan and his wife may have expanded an already existing inn to convert it into a place where they could wait out a period of house arrest

Sultan Han

near Aksaray, 13th Century

• Largest of the Saljuq caravanserais; restored after a fire

• Large, salient pishtaq portal with an elaborate muqarnas half dome above the door

• Anatolian tradition of Finely cut stonework, the workforce was likely comprised of both Muslims and Christians

• No need for a congregational prayer hall here, since the visitors were simply passing through on their way to a big city

• This building was probably designed to offer maximum shelter from wind and snow (winter temperatures here drop to below freezing)

Tomb of Sultan Sanjar

Merv; 12th Century; Saljuq; Tomb

• Dome square with a high transition zone, triple the size of the rest of the tombs

• Size was kept through thick walls, deep footings, and concentrated weight of the dome

• double shell dome that alleviates weight

• Outer face of the dome had turquoise tile glaze, but the sun faded it

• Had a garden setting, most likely a chahar bagh, with the first example of the chahar bagh being in a tomb

Karatay Madrasa

Konya, 13th Century

• Ablaq masonry, joggled voussoirs in tympanum, and muqarnas

• Wide range of decorative elements from both the east and the west

• Had a tomb, portal, and only 1 iwan serving as a lecture hall

• The dome did not rest on squinches, but Turkish triangle pendentives in blue

Ince Minare Medrese

Konya, 13th Century

• “Madrasa of the slender minaret”

• Architect may have been a Christian convert to Islam

• Madrasa consists of a dome on prismatic turkish triangles with a single iwan opening onto the covered central space

• Quranic inscription frames the door & up to the top of the facade

Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Qala’un

Cairo; 13th c, Mamluk; Madrasa-tomb

• Build a madrasa with a hospital attached (Hospital no longer exists)

  • Featured 4 Iwans

  • Hydrotherapy and services of musicians to soothe the spirit

• Tomb is separated from the madrasa by a narrow alley

• Slightly skewed Facade to accommodate the preexisting avenue

• Interior decorated with marble panels, polychromatic inlay, and carved and gilded wood.

Sultan Nasir Muhammad Madrasa-Masuoleum

• Finished one that was unfinished by a predecessor

• Tomb became burial chamber for his mother and favorite son

  • Facade

    • Addition of a striking piece of spoila → white marble, gothic portal seized from a Crusader Chruch

    • Tri-lobed tympanum and inset columns → visual symbol of conquest

Gunbad-i Ali (tomb of Ali)

Abarquh, 11th Century; Tomb

• has a slightly tapered octagonal base with an elegant muqarnas cornice

• a band containing the foundation inscription

• dome that caps the building today may be a replacement for an original pointed tower ( we don’t know)

What are the dates of the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt?

1169-1250

Were the Ayyubids sunni or shi`i?

Sunni

When finished, in what ways did the Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Salih address itself to the street?

Skewed ornamental façade, tall minaret, inscriptions, projecting domed tomb.

What function did the iwans serve in the Madrasa of Sultan Salih?

Each iwan held a different branch of law.

What is hadith?

The hadith are the sayings of the Prophet.

What is a waqf and how did it affect the built environment of a city like Cairo?

An endowment. It encouraged the building and endowment of architecture as charitable works that served the public good.

Why would Shajar al-Durr choose to be represented by an image of a tree? Why not a portrait of her face?

Aniconism forbade it, especially in a place of prayer like a tomb. Although as a woman she was largely invisible to the public, here she found a way to make herself visible.

What are the dates of the Mamluk dynasty?

1250-1517

In what two buildings do we find glass mosaic mihrabs?

Tomb of Shajar al-Durr and the mihrab of the Sultan Qala’un Madrasa.

What is tiraz? In what sense can we think of tiraz in an architectural context? In what buildings do you see tiraz-like bands?

An inscription embroidered along the border of a textile. In architecture, the large inscriptions on building facades are like tiraz bands. We see this feature on the façade of the Mosque of al-Aqmar, Sultan Qala’un complex, Nasir Muhmmad complex, and in the qibla iwan of the Sultan Hasan complex.

How many minarets did the Sultan Hasan complex originally have? What was their purpose?

Four. One was for the call to prayer, but as a group, they articulated the space of the complex on the urban skyline.

In summarizing this chapter, what was innovative about the Sultan Salih complex? What was innovative about its tomb? What was innovative about the Sultan Hasan complex? What was innovative about its tomb?

The Sultan Salih complex assigned each school of law to a different iwan, thus it spatialized academic specialization. Its tomb turned the academic institution into a memorial complex. The Sultan Hasan complex dovetailed a madrasa with a mosque in a four-iwan plan that separated yet united the two functions and two constituencies. The tomb was positioned boldly behind the mihrab, implying that the patron was positing himself not only as the builder of the complex but also the object of its prayers.

What is a transition zone?

In a domed structure, it is the structural space between the square base and the round rim of the dome overhead. The transition can be filled with squinches, muqarnas, or by an octagonal band.

What is a “qubba”?

Qubba means dome, and the term is often used to describe a domed pavilion.

Describe the character of Almohad architecture.

Severe, with ornament restrained and sublimated to structure.

What are the dates of the Almohad dynasty?

1130-1269

Were the Giralda minaret and the minaret of the Mosque of Hassan made of stone or brick? How does the material affect the decorative program?

Brick. The same brick is used for construction (a purely utilitarian use) but is then also transformed into ornament.

What is sebka?

Sebka is a panel comprised of interlacing polylobed arches. It is a decorative motif found in Almohad and Nasrid architecture.

From what city did the Nasrids rule and what were their dates?

Granada. 1232-1492

What was the function of the Hall of the Ambassadors?

A reception hall where ambassadors and important dignitaries were received.

What examples of symbolism do we encounter at the Alhambra? How do the buildings and gardens communicate?

The Muqarnas dome in the Hall of the Two Sisters is a symbol of the heavens. The Comares Palace Hall of the Ambassadors was a symbol that stood in for the sultan in the eyes of the people of Granada below the palace. The inscribed Quran verses and poetry underscored the metaphor of heaven and of the ruler’s power. And as always in the case of managed landscapes, the acqusition and display of water was a sign of the sultan’s power of his territory.

What is the message conveyed by the Quran verses in the Hall of the Ambassadors?

The verses underscore the power of God, and by extension seem to allude to the sultan’s power and authority as well.

What precise words in Navagero’s description suggest that the Court of the Lions was originally paved?

Read Anthology of Sources, §5.17 Navagiero, On the Alhambra.

In the Lindaraja Mirador’s poem, “I am an eye…” to whom does the “I” refer? Do we see this use of “I” in other poems in the Alhambra?

The “I” of the poem is the mirador itself. It equates itself with an “eye” that sees out to the horizons of the kingdom. Yes, the poem encircling the Hall of the Two Sisters speaks in the “I” voice.

From where did the water come for the Alhambra’s pools and fountains?

It was brought by canal from the mountains above the palace.

What are the Marinid dynasty dates?

1269-1465

Why did Marinid rulers build so many madrasas?

The madrasa as an institution was an assertion of orthodox Islam (the status quo, of which the sultans were members) that countered the popular religious practices and ideas that flourished in the countryside.

Why do the Moroccan madrasas often have asymmetrical plans?

The irregular plan was an adaptive strategy because they had to fit into an already very built-up city. Thus the context usually determined the madrasa’s available space.

Did the Alhambra have zellij tile or do we only find it in Morocco?

The Alhambra did have zellij tile forming the dado of many of its courtyards and halls. There were ceramic artisans who probably moved back and forth between the two centers of patronage.

Why does the Bou Inania madrasa have a minaret and a clock?

It was both a madrasa and a congregational mosque. The minaret was to call the surrounding community to prayer. The clock was to signal the time of prayer to muezzins in nearby mosques.

What is a zawiya?

A retreat for warrior-monks where they could devote themselves to study and prayer.

What were the components of the Chella complex?

A cemetery for Marinid family members, a madrasa, and mosques for prayer.

How did Islam spread into sub-Saharan Africa and the Swahili Coast?

Traders arrived by ship along the Swahili coast on the east, and the crossed the desert by caravan to reach Mali to the south.

What is the date of the Great Mosque of Djenné?

The answer is complicated because the mosque was rebuilt multiple times since it was founded in the 13th or 14th century. Moreover, its surface must be refreshed annually.

What are the dates of the two branches of the Saljuq dynasty?

Iran, Iraq, and Syria (1040-1194); Anatolia (1081-1307)

What is a han?

Caravanserai/Khan/Inn for travelers

What motivation did a sultan have for building a han?

To stimulate travel and trade and to extend the tentacles of his power out into the hinterlands

Why build so many caravanserais?

They had to be placed a day’s ride from each other, thus formed a string along the major trade routes.

What is a transition zone?

the area in which the shift from the square base to the round dome is made, usually with squinches bridging the corners of the square.

How many different building functions have we seen using a four-iwan plan?

Madrasa, hospital, palace, caravanserai, mosque. The plan was not tied to the function. Rather, a plan—whether a four-iwan courtyard or a domed cube—could serve a multitude of different functions.

What strategies did the architects of the Sultan Sanjar Tomb use to handle the weight and mass of the structure?

Thick deep footing, thick walls, ribbed support for the dome, double shelled dome..

What changes did the Saljuq patrons make to the Masjid-i Jami of Isfahan?

They inserted a four-iwan plan into the hypostyle mosque; added south and north dom

Can you explain the differences in the geometry between the South and North domes in the Masjid-I Jami of Isfahan? What was the difference in effect?

The south dome was based on the number 8, while the north dome was based on 5. The latter was more geometrically sophisticated, probably because it was the response of Taj al-Mulk to his arch rival. He had to not merely match his rival; he had to surpass him.

What changes in plan and organization characterize the Saljuq madrasas of Anatolia?

The courtyard is now domed; there is one major iwan; the portal dominates the façade.

How is the transition from square base to round dome handled in the Konya madrasas?

The dome rests on Turkish triangles

The Saljuqs of Anatolia formed a cultural bridge between eastern Islam and the Mediterranean word (that included Byzantines and Armenians). How is this reflected in their architecture?

Lots of different kinds of ornamental motifs, possible employment of Armenian stone masons, use of pendentives instead of squinches.

What are the dates of the Ghaznavid dynasty?

977-1186

What was the official Islamic stance towards tomb building? Who created the policy?

Tombs were banned according to Muhammad’s own words, recorded in the hadith.

What motivated the policy?

Fear that tombs would become places of popular prayer, and that the people buried there would be regarded as saints, leading to a conscious or unconscious form of polytheism.

What is a squinch?

A squinch is an arch that spans the corner of a square structure, thus forming an octagon on which the base of the dome can rest without cracking.

In what kinds of institutions have we seen the four-iwan plan used?

Madrasa, palaces, hospitals

Why do early mausolea vary so greatly in form and appearance?

Lots of individual patronage with individual taste. Whereas mosques, built for the entire community, were more conservative in design, an individual could go wild with his or her tomb.

In what buildings do we see early instances of glazed tile used on the building exterior?

The Chella zawiya’s minaret and gate, and the Minaret of Jam. Glazed tile appears in the dado (lower wall portion) in the courtyards of the Alhambra Palace, but that was 14th century – quite a bit later than Jam.

What was the purpose of the Minaret of Jam?

It was a victory monument.

4-Iwan Plan

cruciform arrangement of 4 large vaulted halls

Ablaq

close juxtaposition of stones of contrasting colors for decorative effect.

baraka

Blessing

Dikka

A platform in the mosque from which the Quran is recited and prayers are delievered by the imam

joggled voussoirs

interlocking blocks (voussoirs) that make an arch

Khutba

Friday sermon delivered in the mosque

Mamluk

literally means “owned,” and it refers here to slaves