sociolinguistics 2

translanguaging, polylanguaging, metrolingualism

using any language in one's repertoire at any given time

Monoglossic

takes monolingualism as a norm and values it above multilingualism

Pluralist

values multilingualism and frames it as a positive thing for individuals and societies

linguistic landscapes

analyses of language displays in public spaces, incl signs, billboards, advertisements, and graffiti

-can provide evidence abt language ideologies

commodification of languages

when use of lng is seen within a capitalist market, when legs are used to lend a sense of authenticity to attract patrons

Matched-guise technique

An experimental technique where a single actor puts on a different accent for different audiences, but keeps the content of the speech the same

Matched guise technique was used to study

attitudes abt Canadian English (CE) vs. Canadian French (CF) vs. Continental French(CF)

hegemony

power achieved through consent, ie, the subordinated group accepts the dominance of the dominant group

language shift

when people shift to speaking a different lng (usually the dominant)

language maintenance

when people maintain their home lng (both lngs are spoken)

ethnolinguistic vitality

the likelihood of a lng to be maintained

depends on:
(1) its status
(2) its territorial distribution and concentration together with population demographics
(3) its institutional support or lack thereof

objective vitality

(1) its status
(2) its territorial distribution and concentration together with population demographics
(3) its institutional support or lack thereof

subjective vitality

perceptions of group members abt a lng's

(1) status
(2) territorial distribution and concentration together with population demographics
(3) institutional support or lack thereof

diglossia

two distinct codes with clear functional separation (ex. Arabic, Haiti) H/L varieties

multilingual discourse

It is used as a cover term by the academic community to describe anumber of different multilingual linguistic patterns such ascodeswitching and translanguaging

approaches to multilingual discourse

There are four different approaches to analyzing multilingual discourse or language choice: situational vs. metaphorical switching, accommodation, markedness model, and identity construction.

situational codeswitching

occurs when the languages used change according to the situations: one language is used in one situation and another in a different one.

differences b/w code switching and diglossia

diglossia is much more rigid and may encode power differences between participants

Metaphorical codeswitching

has an affective dimension to it: the choice of codecarries symbolic meaning, that is, the language fits the message

Communication accommodation

Language users sometimes try to accommodate to the expectations that others have of them when they speak, and they may do this consciously and deliberately or be quite unaware of what they are doing

Can be convergence (reduction of differences) or divergence (increase of distance)

Markedness Model

The main idea of this model is that, for a given interaction, there is an unmarked choice, that is, a code which is expected in the specific context. The relative markedness of a code varies by situation andinterlocutor.

Mocking performances in multilingual discourse are linked to...

authenticity

Crossing

using a language of a group (usually ethnolinguistic) to which one does not belong

Remember the film abt the

Wampaonoag

Matrix Language Frame

when code switching occurs within the same sentence, assumes that one of the languages is dominant and provides the grammatical frame, and that only certain morphemes can come from the other lng

Do both lngs contribute equally to variety formation?

The role of the languages is rooted in interactional and societal factors and displayed in structural outcomes of different types

Borrowing

The use of loanwords from one lng in another

phonologically integrated

loanwords produced according to the phonological rules of the recipient lng

Syntactic calques/loan translations

Word-for-word translations, often of idiomatic phrases (skyscrapers)

semantic loans/loan shifts

words in the recipient lng which take on a new meaning because of phonological similarity to words in the donor lng (grosería to mean grocery store)

Convergence

when one lng takes on structural features of another

ex. we would expect Spanish (pro-drop) to converge closer to English (more pronouns) -> results have varied

Phonological features of Latinx Englishes

Monophthongization (diphthongs are reduced) and vowel reduction of schwa, final devoicing (/boys/ instead of /boyz/), final pitch contours

Straataal

variety of Dutch spoken by young people, vocab comes from Surinamese (English-based creole), used by people from many different backgrounds

Mixed lngs

contact varieties in which there is a more balanced mixture of two lngs, different from creoles in that there are only two lngs involved and different components can be easily traced back to either lng
- develop from widespread bilingualism
- Michif (Cree and French in Canada)

Lingua franca

a language used to facilitate communication between two people w/ different mother tongues
- English is used as a global lingua franca

superstrate lng/lexifier lng

socially, economically, and politically dominant lngin the multilingual context in which it is spoken
- Usually provides much of the lexicon

Substrate lngs

the native lngs of the speakers who contribute to the development of the pidgin or creole

-usually socially subordinate to superstrate lng
-provide some of the vocab, but mostly the phonological and grammatical systems

pidgin

a simplified lng which emerges in cases where speakers do not have full access to a common lng

usually spoken in environments of mass migrant labor or increased labor

features of pidgins

- reduction of morphology and syntax
- tolerance of considerable phonological variation
- reduction in the number of functions for which the variety is used
- extensive borrowing from local mother tongues

creole

the process of becoming a mother tongue and process of structural elaboration

differences between p/c and second lng acquisition

1. pidgins are conventionalized systems of communication
2. pidgins can be a target lng (a lng intended to be learned)
3. there is a difference b/w the development of an interlanguage and the sociolinguistic process involving communication b//w individuals which results in a pidgin

transfer

when lng-learning individuals use features of their first language in the second lng they are learning

features of creole

full elaboration into a complete lng

-sounds are fewer and less complicated in arrangements than in superstate lng
-no morphophonemic variation
-lack of morphological inflection
-verbs lack tense markers
-no case distinctions for pronouns
-reduplication

life cycle model

held that the distinction between a pidgin and a creole had to do with nativization (the existence of native speakers)

gradualist model

the assertion that full elaboration comes before nativization

it is generally held that the _______ is what gives rise to elaboration of creoles

communicative context; that is, it's used for regular communication

universalist position

all creoles are structurally similar, due to the influence of linguistic universals

substratist position

creoles are structurally similar due to their similar substrate legs

relexification hypothesis

phonological form of the superstate lng is used while retaining the semantic and syntactic systems of the substrate legs

decreolization

when the lexifier lng consists with the creole

acrolect

an educated variety of a lng which has few differences from the standard variety (superstrate)

basilect

the variety that is least similar to the standard (superstrate)

creole continuum

range of language varieties that vary between forms that are similar to and different from the superstrate

mesolect

intermediate varieties in the creole continuum

Faetar null subjects hypothesis

Faetar null subjects will show the influence of neighboring legs

Italy - Increase null
Canada - Decrease null

Faetar null subject methods

Comparison of null subjects in AIS atlas data from 1920s, and two corpora of spontaneous Faetar speech (one from Faeto and one from Toronto)

Faetar findings

-younger speakers in both communities are using fewer null subjects -> trend attributed to a wish to assert difference form Italian in Homeland sample
-null subject variation in Faetar disfavors subjects with the same referent as the previous subject, diverging from English and Italian

Markedness Model

The main idea of this model is that, for a given interaction, there is an unmarked choice, that is, a code which is expected in the specific context. The relative markedness of a code varies by situation andinterlocutor.

Banal nationalism

the constant reproduction of the nation as an entity through everyday practices. ie references to the nation and its characteristics in store names, use of "we" and "us" in speech cotidiano

Hot nationalism

when a crisis or threat to the nation is perceived, hot nationalism builds on the everyday banal nationalism to frame the nation as a sacred object for which sacrifices must be made; esp apparent during times of war

imagined communities

we have a perception of the traits of the people in our national community despite not knowing them; sense of belonging; can be problematic when they equate national identity with ethnic identity

idexicality between

lng and national or ethnic identity

national identity can be constructed through

- contrasts with the Other
- metaphorically representing the nation as a human
- use of different vocab to discuss the same phenomena in different nations

cosmopolitanism

greek 'citizen of the world'; is often accompanied by connotations of a social elite which has access to and competence in different cultures

transnationalism

sociocultural, economic, and political ties between countries; incorporate belonging to more than one nation-state; can be constructed with hybrid cultural/ling practices

mudes

the point when a lng user changes their linguistic repertoire, which is a part of the construction of a new identity; focuses on agentive nature of identity; FOCUSES ON A MOMENT IN TIME; SPECIFIC TO INDIVIDUALS

chronotopes

changes in patterns of lng uses across time AND SPACE; focus is on context in relation to the time-space configuration; NOT specific to individuals, but can be more broadly socially situated

identity frames

an identity associated with a context located in a particular place and time

superdiversity

areas where new forms of migration have created a high degree of diversity in society in terms of many aspects of background; leads to new forms of multilingualism and indexicalities b/w speakers and codes

criticisms of super diversity

1. the changes in migration it discusses are limited to the global North and is therefore not broadly applicable
2. these multilingual phenomena are not new (existed in many parts of Africa and Asia), and therefore the ambiguities it hopes to clarify are also not new
3. it reproduces normative assumptions abt lng (lng hierarchies and standard lng)
4. when does diversity become super diversity

culturalizaiton discourse

frames the nation as having a homogenous set of values which well-integrated immigrants must adopt

discourses of migration

1. culturalization discourse
2. not giving refugees a voice in newspapers
3. labelling migrants as other
4. using metaphors ('parasite')
5. competing discourses

Language Analysis for Determination of Origin (LADO)

a way of determining the authenticity of asylum seekers who do not have documentation of their nationality through lng

problems with LADO

(1) monolingual bias may occur
(2) boundaries of varieties are porous -> it can be difficult to precisely pinpoint the origin of a person based on their lng
(3) mobility of asylum seekers may expose them to new lngs/varieties
(4) analysis may be focused on stereotypes

glocalization

how global linguistic resources are adapted and used in the construction of local identities; questions the binary of local/global and addresses varying influences and allegiances

the use of lngs other than English in online spaces is...

increasing

multimodality

a feature of digital communication which makes use of different orthographies, scripts, pictures, emojis, videos, links, etc. not available in signed or spoken lng

citizen sociolinguistics

how sociolinguists can make use of digital performances and discourse that is produced around them in analysis

Social tense

a set of temporal logics within contemporary liberal societies that legitimate everyday forms of suffering by interpreting disparity only through a future viewpoint that understands the abandonment of certain populations as a functional necessity

Rosa (2016) findings

Latinos/as are positioned as ethnoracial others, in part because of chronotopes related to language usage and a social tense of Latino/a people as on the verge of being here, but never quite here yet. Erasure also plays a prominent role

Sex categories

based on the biological distinction between male and female. binary categories are challenged by intersex identities.

transgender

people who do not identify with the gender assigned at birth

cisgender

people who identify with the gender assigned at birth

gender

is culturally constructed and depends on what is considered masculine/feminine in different societies. gender or constructions of gender can vary depending on time, space, etc.

sexuality

one's identity regarding their sexual/romantic activities. include performances of promiscuity, being available, asexuality, homosexuality, etc.

can lng be sexist?

-generic 'he' and 'man' (ex mankind, etc.)
-words that encode sex categories (fireman, stewardess, etc.)
-grammatical gender marking

gender exclusive language

situations in which men and women have different ways of speaking which could be considered different languages; is somewhat contested

gender preferential language

certain ways of speaking may be preferred by one gender or are stereotypically associated with being masculine or feminine

deficit model

the idea that women's speech reveals their place in society: women are seen as less confident and less capable of engaging in serious social activities

dominance approach

addresses power relations between men and women: women ask more questions, use more back channeling techniques, and do not protest as much when interrupted

difference, two cultures approach

assumes that men and women speak differently because they have different life experiences, and therefore, are prone to misunderstandings

-MEN AND WOMEN HAVE DIFFERENT CONVERSATIONAL GOALS

gender and sexuality are...

fluid, constantly shifting, and jointly constructed

Kiesling (2001)

examine how a frat guy uses lng to construct different masculinities; at frat house, uses confrontational lng to place him at the top of the hierarchy; at bar, presents himself instead as an authority figure

baudinette (2017)

use of 'hunky' on Japanese gay dating website reflects heteronormativity

Cameron and Shaw (2016)

challenge the idea that women use 'different' voices, look at 3 women in 2015 UK election, found they use combative and confrontational lng as much as men

normative discourses

frame a particular way of being as normal, and all other ways as abnormal

cisnormativity

the assumption that the gender assigned to a child at birth is the same as the gender identity experienced by the individual

educational linguistics

the overlap of sociolinguistics, education, and social justice

linguistic inequality

the unequal social valuation of particular ways of speaking which reproduces wider social inequalities due to linguistic indexicality

Bernstein argued...

children of lower working classes did not develop an elaborated code, but rather a restricted code