general psychology ch. 1-2

Psychology is

The scientific study of the brain, mind, and behavior

Scientific method

Based on research

empirical evidence

Observation, experimentation, and measurement

Psychology is not

Pop psych, pseudoscience, or just common sense

Pop psych

Popular ideas in the media, education, and the law

Pseudoscience

"Scientific" claims not based on scientific method

Just common sense

Psychological findings can : validate common beliefs, explain or extend them, or contradict them

Critical thinking

Systematic evaluation of the reliability and usefulness of information (as opposed to relying on anecdotes or emotional reactions) as well as a critical component of the scientific method

Guidelines for critical thinking

1. Ask questions

2. Define terms clearly (operational definitions)

3. Analyze assumptions and biases (emotional reasoning)

4. Make observations/examine evidence

5. Remain skeptical (consider alternate interpretations, don't oversimplify or tolerate uncertainty)

"Psychology has a long past but a short history" -Herman Ebbinghaus

Psychology has always been a thing but just hasn't been studied for too long

Greek Philosophy

- source of knowledge/what's real

- can we trust our senses

- rational thinking and problem solving

- emotions

- understanding of human behavior

- missing the scientific method

Greek Method and Physiology

Started at approximately 400BC, Hippocrates

Hippocrates

- founder of modern medicine

- observed head injuries

- brain is the source of pleasure, pain, and emotions

- disorders and diseases have natural causes

Paradigm

Shared view point, common assumptions/beliefs

- guides: focus and topics studied, research questions, appropriate methodologies

Wilhelm Wundt

- established 1st psychological laboratory in 1879 in Germany

- scientific method is used to study psychological issues

- used trained introspection

- observe, analyze and describe sensations, mental images, and emotions

- deconstruct mental experiences into their most basic elements

Structuralism (Edward Titchener)

Basic elements of sensation, images, and feelings

Functionalism (William James)

Function or purpose of behavior (how and why), influenced by evolutionary theory

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)

focus on unconscious motives and conflicts, early childhood experiences, sexual and aggressive urges. Still major today

Gestalt psychology

Focus on how parts of sensory experiences relate to each other as a whole, and on human individual as a whole rather than a sum of individually measured parts

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner)

Focus on observing and controlling behavior; how past experiences and reward of punishment affect behavior

Humanism(Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers)

Focus on positive aspects of human nature, focus on human growth and potential

Basic/Theoretical/Academic Psychology

Scientific study of psychological phenomena; goal is the acquisition of knowledge

Applied Psychology

Application of the theories, principles, and techniques of psychology to practical concerns and problems

Subdivision of Psychology: Biopsychology and evolutionary psychology

- effect of biological processes on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

- evolution and genetics

Subdivision of Psychology: sensation and perception

How sensory information is processed and organised

Subdivision of Psychology: cognitive psychology

- mental processes/thoughts

- memory, judgement and decision making, problem solving, language, etc.

Subdivision of Psychology: developmental psychology

- study of development across a lifespan

- includes physical maturation, cognitive and moral development, social behavior, etc.

Subdivision of Psychology: personality psychology

Patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique

Subdivision of Psychology: social psychology

Effect of social and cultural environment on thoughts and behavior

Subdivision of Psychology: health psychology

How health is affected by biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors

Subdivision of Psychology: clinical psychology

- diagnosis and treatment of psychology disorders and other behavioral issues

- counseling psychology

Subdivision of Psychology: counseling psychology

Focus on emotional, social, vocational, and health related issues in psychologically "healthy" individuals

Subdivision of Psychology: Forensic psychology

Application of psychological principles in the justice system (competency to stand trial, sentencing and treatment recommendations, eyewitness testimony)

Subdivision of Psychology: sport and exercise psychology

Psychological aspects of performance (ex: motivation, anxiety, wellbeing)

Subdivision of Psychology: industrial organizational psychology

Application of psychological theories, principles, and research in industrial and organizational settings

The scientific method: theory

Explanation of why something happens

The scientific method: hypothesis

Testable prediction

The scientific method: empirical evidence

Observable

The scientific method: skepticism

Of others ideas and claims as well as your own

The scientific method: falsifiability

Predicts what will happen and what will not happen

Good theories are

falsifiable; they make predictions that can expose the theory to be disconfirmation

The scientific method: openness and the peer review process

- full disclosure of ideas, procedures, and findings

- full disclosure of unexpected and undesirable results

- publish in peer reviewed journals

- encourage and support replication

"Science is bending over backwards to prove yourself wrong" - Richard Feynman

You're trying to prove you're theory false

Population

Entire group of interest

Sample

Sunset of population selected for study

Random sample

Every member of population has an equal chance of being aelected

Representative sample

Sample matches characteristics of the population

Generalizability

Results from sample apply to population

Construct

- an unobservable/internal psychological "processes" or "mechanism"

- most psychological variables are constructs

- conformity, group think, learning, memory, extroversion, depression

operational definition

Precise instructions for observing, measuring, or manipulating a construct

Reliability

Operational definition produces consistent results

Inter-rater reliability

Degree to which two or more observers agree

Internal consistency

Degree to which different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with one another

Test-retest reliability

Degree measurements remain consistent over multiple administrations

Validity

Operational definition measures what it was designed to measure

Face validity

Degree to which operational definition "seems valid

Predictive validity

Degree to which operational definition can predict relevant outcomes

Research designs: case study

Detailed/in depth study of a specific individual or case

Research designs: naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural setting with minimal interference

Research designs: survey research

Questions about attitudes, opinions, beliefs, feelings, experiences, and/or behaviors

Research designs: archival research

Using existing records or data

Research designs: longitudinal research

Data collected repeatedly over an extended period of time (same group of participants at 20, then 30, then 40)

Research designs: cross sectional research

Comparison of multiple "segments" of a population at the same time (one group of 20 year olds, one group of 30 year olds, one group of 40 year olds)

Correlation designs: correlation

Relationship between two variables

Correlation designs: positive correlation

Scores on two variables increase or decrease together

Correlation designs: negative correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases

Correlation designs: zero correlation

No relationship between the variables

Correlation does not establish

causation

Experimental designs: experiment

Test causal effect of one variable on another variable

Experimental designs: independent variable

- predicted to cause changed in the dependent variable

- controlled/manipulated by the researched

- assignment of participants to conditions

Experimental designs: dependent variable

- Affected by the independent variable

- measured by researcher

Experimental designs: experimental condition

Group of participants exposed to an intervention

Experimental designs: controlled condition

- group of participants not exposed to an intervention

- or exposed to different intervention

Experimental designs: Equivalent groups

- Control and experimental conditions are equivalent on DV before the start of the study and all other factors that could effect the DV

- only difference between the control and experimental conditions is exposure to the independent variable

Experimental designs: confounding variable

2nd variable that differs control and experimental conditions

Experimental designs: random assignment

Assignment of participants to conditions is random

Experimental designs: placebo

Inactive substance given to control condition

Experimental designs: single blind study

Participants are bound to condition

Experimental designs: experimenter effects

Unintentional actions of experimenter

Experimental designs: double blind study

Participants and experimenter are blind to condition

Statistics: statistical analysis

- evaluate how likely results are due to chance (sampling error)

- not just for experimental dayay

Statistics: p value

- probability result occurred by chance

- cutoff is p<0.05

Statistics: statistical significance

Result is significant if p<0.05

Research Ethics: informed consent

Participation is voluntary; participants must know enough about the study to make an informed decision about participation

Research Ethics: deception

- purposely misleading participants in order to maintain integrity of study

- never permitted when deception could be considered harmful

Research Ethics: debriefing

Participants are made aware of true purpose of study and why deception was necessary