Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments

Government

The leadership and institutions that make policy decisions for a country

Politics

- The power to makes decisions
- Affected by how power is gained, managed, challenged, and/or maintained

Empirical statement

- A statement based on facts, data, or statistics
- An objective statement (i.e. cannot be refuted)

Normative statement

- A statement based on a value judgment
- A subjective statement (i.e. can be refuted)

Hypothesis

A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

Variables

Measurable traits or characteristics that change under different conditions

Independent variable

The variable that is changed and influences the dependent variable

Dependent variable

The variable that is caused by the independent variable

Causation

When one (or more) variables cause another to occur

Correlation

- When a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other
- Reveals that causality may be present; however, it is not proven

Three-World Approach

- A geopolitical model formed during the Cold War to describe the differences between countries
- Divides states into three categories: First World, Second World, and Third World
- Outdated because the Cold War ended in 1991, and the geopolitical organization of the world has changed

First World

U.S. and its allies

Second World

Soviet Union and the Soviet Bloc

Third World

States that face economic underdevelopment and political instability (and are unaligned with the U.S. or the U.S.S.R.)

Formal politics

Enumerated positions and structures that define the powers of the government

Informal politics

- The use of political power outside of enumerated powers
- Affected by the beliefs, values, and actions of citizens because they shape policy-making

Advanced democracies

- States with well-established democratic governments and high levels of economic development
- e.g. Great Britain

Communist and post-communist states

- States that limited individual freedom in order to divide wealth more equally
- Communism flourished in the 20th century and fell apart in the 21st century
- e.g. China (communist) and Russia (post-communist)

Less developed countries (LDCs)

States that lack significant economic development and often have authoritarian governments (e.g. Nigeria)

Newly-industrialized countries (NICs)

States that are experiencing rapid economic growth and have a tendency toward democratization and stability (e.g. Mexico and Iran)

State

- The organization that maintains a monopoly of violence over a territory
- Defines who can and cannot use weapons and force; sets rules as to how violence is used
- Often sponsor armies, navies, air forces that legitimately use power, but individual citizens are restricted in their use of force

Requirements for a state

- Permanent population
- Defined boundaries
- Sovereignty
- International recognition
- Well-formed government

Institutions

- A component of states
- Stable, long-lasting organizations that help to turn political ideas into policy
- Can promote general welfare and economic stability
- e.g. Bureaucracies, legislatures, judicial systems, political parties

Sovereignty

The ability of a state to carry out actions or policies within its borders independently

Characteristics of states without sovereignty and autonomy

- Exploited by leaders and organizations
- High level of corruption
- Often NICs and LDCs

Nation

A group of people bound together by a common descent, ethnicity, culture, political history, religion, etc.

Nationalism

- The sense of belonging and identity that distinguishes one nation from another
- National borders used to be drawn based on national identity; however, many multinational states exist

Multinational state

- A state that contains more than one nation
- e.g. Soviet Union had Ukrainians, Croats, and more

Stateless nation

- People without a state
- e.g. Kurds are divided across six states (Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan) and are dominant in none

Multistate nation

- When a culture or ethnicity that composes a nation is dispersed among multiple states
- People tend to feel more connection to their cultural group than to their country
- e.g. Ethnic Russians in post-Soviet states, such as Ukraine

Nation-state

- When the territory of people who occupy under the same nation is the same as the politically recognized borders of a state
- None technically exist due to globalization and migration
- e.g. Japan

Core area

- The central, heavily populated area of a state
- Most nation-states grew from core areas, expanding outward along their frontiers
- Often are highly populated and have centralized transportation routes
- e.g. Paris Basin in France

Periphery

- The outlying areas of a state
- Smaller populations, more rural, more open land

Multicore states

- States that have more than one core area
- Often cause conflict between regions
- e.g. Nigeria: Muslim North vs. Christian South
- e.g. United States: East Coast vs. West Coast

Regime

- The rules that a state sets and follows in exerting its power

- Endure beyond individual governments and leaders

- When a country’s institutions and practices carry over across time, even though leaders and particular issues change

- Two types: democratic and authoritarian regimes

Indirect democracy

Elected officials represent the people

Direct democracy

Individuals have immediate say over decisions (e.g. vote directly on laws)

Parliamentary system

- Citizens vote for legislative representatives, who in turn select the leaders of the executive branch
- Based on parliamentary sovereignty
- No separation of powers

Parliamentary system in theory

The legislature makes the laws, controls finances, appoints and dismisses the prime minister and the cabinet, and debates public issues

Parliamentary system in practice

- Strong party discipline develops, so the cabinet initiates legislation and makes policy
- The majority party always votes for the bills proposed by its leadership (prime minister and cabinet)

Parliamentary sovereignty

The idea that the legislative body is the supreme legal authority that can create or end any law (i.e. the legislature is more powerful than the executive and the judicial branches)

The lack of separation of powers in parliamentary systems

- Prime minister and cabinet are the leaders of the majority party in the legislature
- Executive and legislative branches are fused together

Head of state (parliamentary system)

- A role that symbolizes the power and nature of the regime
- e.g. King of England

Head of government (parliamentary system)

- A role that deals with the everyday tasks of running the government
- e.g. British Prime Minister

Presidential system

- Citizens vote for legislative representatives as well as for executive branch leaders, and the two branches function with separate powers
- Roles of head of state and head of government are given to the president (elected by the people)
- Checks and balances / separation of powers
- Often experiences gridlock (slow pace)
- e.g. United States, Nigeria, Mexico

Semi-presidential system

- A prime minister coexists with a president who is directly elected by the people and who holds a significant degree of power
- e.g. Russia (1993 Constitution): President had more power until Vladimir Putin became prime minister in 2008 after serving two terms as president; in 2012, Putin was elected president again, increasing power in that position again

Authoritarian regimes

- Decisions are made by political elites (those who hold political power) without much input from citizens
- May be ruled by a dictator, a hereditary monarch, a group of aristocrats, or a single political party
- Economy is tightly controlled by the political elite

Common characteristics of authoritarian regimes

- A small group of elites exercising power over the state
- Citizens with little or no input into selection of leaders and government decisions
- No constitutional responsibility of leaders to the public
- Restriction of civil rights and civil liberties

Totalitarianism

- A type of government that is particularly repressive, and often detested
- Seek to control all aspects of the political and economic systems of the society
- Use violence to silence dissent
- Strong ideological goal (e.g. communism)

Military rule

- A type of nondemocratic rule in which the military intervenes directly in politics (since it's often the only group that can resolve the chaos)
- Usually starts with a coup d'état
- Military leaders often restrict civil rights and liberties, and prevent elections from taking place
- Military leaders lack an ideology, so they form an authoritarian regime with the state bureaucracy

Coup d'état

A forced takeover of the government

Corporatism

- A system in which business, labor, and other interest groups bargain with the state over economic policy
- Created as a way for authoritarian regimes to control the public by creating/recognizing organizations to represent the interests of the public: makes the government appear less authoritarian, but also eliminates input by groups not sanctioned nor created by the state (i.e. silencing the public)

Corporatism in Mexico

- The government had a one-party system for most of the 20th century
- Oil wells and refineries were controlled by PEMEX (controlled by the state)
- Private oil business were forced out of the country

Co-optation

- The means a regime uses to get support from citizens
- Assimilation into a larger existing group

Patron-clientelism

- A system in which the state provides specific benefits or favors to a single person or small group in return for public support
- Relies on individual patronage rather than organizations that serve a large group of people (corporatism)
- Responsibilities and obligations are based on a hierarchy between elites and citizens

Corporatism in democracies

- Prevalent when the state considers economic policy planning and regulation
- State officials meet with nationalized industries and private corporations

Pluralism

- Basic principle of democracy
- A situation in which power is split among many groups that compete for the chance to influence the government's decision making
- Citizens compete for influence over policy making

Differences between corporatism and pluralism

- Creation of interest groups is spontaneous in plural societies, while it it institutionalized in corporatist societies
- Interest groups remain autonomous in plural societies, while interest groups can lose autonomy by binding with state agencies in corporatist societies

Democracy Index

- The Economist ranks countries in terms of their democratic practices

- Categorized into 4 types of regimes: full democracies (e.g. UK), flawed democracies, hybrid regimes (e.g. Mexico, Nigeria) authoritarian regimes (e.g. Iran, Russia, China)

5 categories measured by the Democracy Index

- Electoral process and pluralism
- Civil liberties
- Functioning of government
- Political participation
- Political culture

Legitimacy

- The right to rule, as determined by the people
- Can be secured through social compacts, constitutions, ideologies

Traditional legitimacy

- Based on the belief that tradition should determine who should rule and how (e.g. hereditary rule)
- Involves myths and legends, reinforced with rituals and ceremonies
- Most monarchical systems symbolize traditional legitimacy through crowns, thrones, etc.
- Can be shaped by religion (e.g. Inca chief rulers were deities descended from the sun)

Charismatic legitimacy

- Based on the dynamic personality of an individual leader or small group
- Prompts loyalty among the people
- Short-lived because it does not outlive its founder
- e.g. Napoleon

Rational-legal legitimacy

- Based on a system of well-established laws and procedures
- Anchored by institutions that carry over the generations of individual leaders
- People obey leaders because they believe in the rules that brought them to power
- Acceptance of the rule of law that supersedes the actions and statements of individual rulers

Common law

Based on tradition, past practices, and legal precedents set by courts through interpretations of statutes, legislation, and past rulings (e.g. stare decisis)

Code law

- Based on a comprehensive system of written rules (codes) of law divided into commercial, civil, and criminal codes
- English origin
- e.g. China, Mexico, Russia

Factors that contribute to legitimacy in democratic regimes

- Fair, competitive elections
- Open political participation by citizens

Factors that encourage legitimacy in democratic and authoritarian regimes

- Economic well-being
- Historical tradition/longevity
- Charismatic leadership
- Nationalism/shared political culture
- Satisfaction with the government's performance

Political culture

The collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions on which the government is based

Social capital

- The amount of reciprocity and trust that exists among citizens, and between citizens and the state
- Low social capital → Authoritarian and anti-individual governments
- High social capital → Democracy

Consensual political culture

- Although citizens may disagree on some political processes and policies, they tend generally to agree on how decisions are made, what issues should be addressed, and how problems should be solved
- Citizens accept the legitimacy of the regime and solutions to major problems
- e.g. Citizens agree on the importance of elections, and then accept the elected leaders

Conflictual political culture

- Citizens are sharply divided, often on both the legitimacy of the regime and its solutions to major problems
- Political subcultures develop and the government struggles to keep power
- e.g. Citizens may be divided by religion and refuse to recognize a leader of another religion

Political ideologies

Sets of political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of government and politics

Liberalism

- Emphasis on individual political and economic freedom
- Seek to maximize freedom for all people (e.g. freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of expression)
- Citizens have the right to disagree with state decisions and act to change the decisions of leaders
- e.g. U.S. and Britain

Communism

- Values equality over freedom
- Rejects the idea that personal freedom will ensure prosperity for the majority
- In order to eliminate inequality and exploitation, the state takes over all resources to insure true equality
- Private ownership of property is abolished

Socialism

- Influenced by the communist value of equality and the liberal value of freedom
- Promote private ownership and free market principles
- Believes that the state needs to have a strong role in regulating the economy or even owning key industries within it
- Believes the state should provide benefits to the public to promote a degree of equality

Fascism

- Permits private ownership of property (at least by elites)
- Rejects the value of equality, arguing that people exist in degrees of superiority and inferiority
- Believes that the state has the right/responsibility to mold the society and economy and to eliminate obstacles (including dissidents)
- e.g. Nazi Germany

Neoliberalism

A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy

Civil liberties

Freedoms guaranteed to individuals in order to protect them from the government (e.g. freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of religion)

Civil rights

Legal rights to protect citizens from discrimination (e.g. right to vote, right to education)