PSYC100 - Module 3: Scientific Research & Ethics - Exam #1

Norm of Reciprocity

People should provide benefits to those who provide them

What is the concept of Open Science?

A research process open to everyone

What is empiricism?

Theory that the only source of knowledge is our senses

Seen through a direct observation and not argument/belief

What are the features of science?

Empirical Evidence

Objectivity

Control

Hypothesis Testing

Replication

Predictability

What are characteristics of a good scientific theory?

Overarching (Greater) explanation for the phenomena

Testable + Falsifiable

Leads to multiple predictions

What are the steps of the scientific method?

Theory → Hypothesis → Experimentation → Evaluation → Conclusion → Refine & Repeat 

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

Hypothesis (Scientific Method)

Proposed explanation for a fairly narrow set of phenomena that are usually based off prior experience, observation, and logic

Theory (Scientific Method)

Broad explanation for a wide set of phenomena

Null vs. Alternative Hypothesis

Null = The theory/prediction you are making does not exist

• Eating less does not make you fatter

Alternative = The theory/prediction you are making exists

• Eating less does make you fatter

What are tails in a hypothesis? One vs. Two?

Tails are the direction of a hypothesis

• Solely Increase / Decrease

  • Eating less increases your weight

• Increase / Decrease / Etc.

  • Eating can affect your weight

What does it mean when you are testing for statistical significance?

Checking to see whether the differences between measurements matter

What is the t-statistic for statistical significance?

Testing Statistic

Checking the difference between the null and alternative hypothesis

What is the t-distribution for statistical significance?

Testing Distribution or Sampling Distribution

Used to fine the p-value 

What is the p-value for statistical significance?

The probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as large as the one observed

When do we reject the null hypothesis in statistical significance?

When the p-value is less than the determined threshold (significance level)

Type I vs Type II error

Falsely rejecting the null hypothesis (False scientific claim)

• Claiming that your effect/hypothesis is real, when it does not exist

Falsely accepting the null hypothesis (Missed scientific discovery)

• Claiming that the effect/hypothesis is false, when it does exist

What are independent groups in experimental design?

Data collected from two different groups of people

• Control group that is not altered

• Treatment group that is altered by testing

What are same subjects in experimental design?

Multiple measurements from the same group of participants

• Like a before/after affects

Traits of Conceptual Variables

Abstract and General

What the researcher wants to measure

• The level of nicotine addiction

Operational Definitions

Specific procedure for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable

• The amount of times someone smokes a cigarette

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

The independent variable is changed to measure whether there is a change in the dependent variable

What is a confound? How is it fixed?

An outside influence that affects both the IV and DV

Finding a control for the confound / Noting aspects to consider

Who do we test studies on? Define them !

Populations: Whole groups of people about which information is wanted

Sample: Part of the population used to gain information about the whole

• We use sample results to generalize the population

What are the aspects of a WEIRD sample?

(W)estern

(E)ducate

(I)ndustrialized

(R)ich

(D)emocratic

Reliability vs. Validity

If an instrument can produce a stable measurement over time

If an instrumental can actually measure what it claims to measure

What are the types of validity? Define them

Construct: Does the measure actually assess what we think it does

Internal: Is the measure affected by confounds or errors

External: Can the measure be generalized to the population

What is random sampling?

Selecting a sample from a larger population that accurately reflects it

What is systematic sampling?

Sampling that researchers select members from a larger population at a fixed, periodic interval

What is Naturalistic Observation?

When a researcher collects information without the participants awareness

What is Structured Observation?

When a researcher sets up a situation and watches participant’s behavior

What is self-reporting?

Participants are asked to provide information or responses to questions on a survey or structure assessment

What is psychophysiological observation?

Using technological methods to observe what is taking place in the body

What is archival observation?

Researchers can examine data that has been collected for other purposes

What are longitudinal studies?

Recruiting a sample of participants and tracking them for an extensive period of time

What are cross-sectional studies?

Researchers look at participants of different ages and look for differences between the groups

What are case studies?

Detailed analysis of a particular person, group, business, or event

What are correlational designs?

Designing two variables to measure whether there is a relationship between them

What are controlled experiments?

Researchers can control one variable to see the affect on the other

What is operationalization?

The process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors

What is the placebo effect?

Phenomena when the brain convinces us that a faux stimulus causes an effect when it does not

What is the Rosenthal effect?

When someone has higher expectations of the other person and they perform better

What are demand characteristics?

Cues in a research setting that give hints to the purpose of the study to alter participants behavior

What is social desirability?

The tendencies for individuals to provide answers that are seen as socially acceptable, rather than their true beliefs or experiences

What are the types of correlations? Define them

Positive: When one variable changes, the other follows in the same direction

Negative: When one variable changes, the other goes the opposite direction

No Correlation: No related change between the variables

Spurious: When there is a relationship between two variables that are caused by chance or a hidden factor

Random Sample vs. Random Assign

Sampling participants from the broader population of interest

Randomly assigning participants to experimental conditions

When is an experiment a True-experiment?

Random Assign + Random Sample

OR

Random Assign + No Random Sample

What are the principles of research participants ethics?

Anonymity

Right to Service

Informed Consent

Risk of Harm

Voluntary Participation

Who ensures that all research is up to relevant ethnical issues and standards?

Institutional Research Board (IRB)

Direct vs. Conceptual Replication

Doing the same methods to conduct a research experiment to test hypothesis 

Doing tests to study the same hypothesis but with different operalizations

What is stratified sampling?

When the researcher identifies different types of people in the targeted population and finds the proportions

What is opportunity/convenience sampling?

Using people from a targeted population that are easily available and are willing to take part