Psych 2e Chapter 8

Three Basic Functions of Memory

Encoding (input of information), Storage (retention of information), and Retrieval (getting the information out).

Atkinson–Shiffrin Model

A memory model with three stages: sensory memory (brief input), short-term memory (temporary storage), and long-term memory (permanent storage). Rehearsal is needed to move information from short-term to long-term memory.

Automatic Processing

Encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words without conscious awareness.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, such as studying for a test or learning new concepts.

Explicit Memory

Also known as declarative memory; memories we consciously try to remember and recall, such as facts and events.

Implicit Memory

Memories that are not part of our consciousness and are formed through behaviors. Includes procedural memory, emotional conditioning, and priming.

Procedural Memory

Type of implicit memory for performing skilled actions, such as brushing your teeth or riding a bike.

Semantic Memory

Part of explicit memory involving general world knowledge and facts, like knowing what a dog is or who the president is.

Episodic Memory

Part of explicit memory involving information about events we have personally experienced (episodes of our lives).

Engram

The physical trace of memory in the brain; Lashley searched for it, concluding that memory is distributed rather than localized.

Amygdala’s Role in Memory

Helps process emotional memories; especially important for fear-based memories. Enhances memory encoding when emotions are involved.

Hippocampus’s Role in Memory

Involved in memory consolidation and spatial memory; critical for transferring new learning into long-term memory.

Cerebellum’s Role in Memory

Plays a role in processing procedural memories, especially those involving motor skills.

Prefrontal Cortex’s Role in Memory

Involved in working memory and retrieval; helps with planning and decision-making involving memories.

Flashbulb Memory

Exceptionally clear recollection of important emotional events (e.g., 9/11).

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after trauma; memories prior to the event remain intact.

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to recall some or all memories formed before a trauma or injury.

Encoding Failure

Occurs when information never enters long-term memory due to lack of attention or meaning.

Transience

One of Schacter’s memory errors; describes how memories can fade over time if not used.

Blocking

Also known as tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon; when you know you know something but can’t retrieve it.

Misattribution

Memory error in which the source of a memory is confused (e.g., thinking you heard something from a friend but it was on TV).

Suggestibility

The distortion of memory due to the influence of others or misleading information.

Bias

How current beliefs or feelings distort memories of past events.

Persistence

The continuous recurrence of unwanted memories (e.g., PTSD).

Proactive Interference

Old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.

Retroactive Interference

New information hinders the recall of older memories.

Memory Construction

Forming new memories; includes the influence of expectations, knowledge, and experiences.

Memory Reconstruction

Reactivation of memory traces during retrieval, often altered or influenced by new information.

Self-Reference Effect

Tendency to better remember information that relates to oneself.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that help organize information (e.g., acronyms, rhymes, visual imagery).

Chunking

The process of organizing information into manageable bits or chunks (e.g., phone numbers).

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information to move it from short-term to long-term memory.

Levels of Processing Theory

The depth of processing affects memory; deeper (semantic) processing leads to better retention than shallow (e.g., visual or phonetic) processing.

Arousal Theory

Strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotions result in weaker memories.

Relearning

Reacquiring knowledge that was previously learned but forgotten; often easier than original learning.

Recognition

A memory task in which individuals identify previously learned information from a list of options (e.g., multiple choice).

Recall

A memory task in which individuals retrieve previously learned information without cues (e.g., essay questions).