Psychopathology #2 (Glossary)

comorbidity

co-occurance of two or more disorders in the same person

cross-cutting measures

assesses common symptoms that are not specific to one disorder

functional imaging

procedures that provide data regarding physiological and biochemical processes occurring within the brain 

projective personality test

testing involving responses to ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots, pictures, or incomplete sentences

prognosis

prediction of the probable outcome of a disorder, including the chances of full recovery

psychological assessment

the process of gathering information and drawing conclusions about an individual’s traits, skills, abilities, and emotional functioning

psychosis

a condition involving loss of contact with or a distorted view of reality, including disorganized thinking, false beliefs, or seeing or hearing things that aren’t there

reliability

the degree to which a procedure or test yields consistent results

remission

a significant improvement in the symptoms of a disorder

standardization

the use of identical procedures in the administration of tests

standardization sample

the comparison group on which test norms are based

specifiers

specific features associated with a diagnostic category

structural imaging

procedures that allow for visualization of brain anatomy

subtypes

mutually exclusive subgrouping within a diagnosis

validity

the extent to which a test or procedure actually measures what it was designed to measure

analogue study

an investigation that attempts to replicate or stimulate, under controlled conditions, a situation that occurs in real life

asymptomatic

no symptoms

base rate

the rate of natural occurrence of a phenomenon in the population

case study

an intensive study of one individual that relies on clinical data, such as observations, psychological tests, and historical and biographical information

correlation

the extent to which variations in one variable are accompanied by increases or decreases in a second variable

dependent variable

a variable that is expected to change when an independent variable is manipulated in a psychological experiment

double-blind design 

an experimental design in which neither those helping with the experiment nor the participants are aware of experimental conditions 

endophenotypes

measurable characteristics (neurochemical, endocrinological, neuroanatomical, cognitive, or neuropsychological) that can give clues regarding the specific genes involved in a disorder

epidemiological research

the study of prevalence and distribution of mental disorders in a population

evidence-based practice

treatment decisions based on best current research combined with clinician judgment and client needs

evidence-based therapies

treatment techniques that have strong research support

experiment

a technique of scientific inquiry in which a prediction is made about two variables; the independent variable is then manipulated in a controlled situation, and changes in the dependent variable are measured

experimental hypothesis

a prediction concerning how an independent variable will affect a dependent variable in an experiment

external validity

the degree to which findings of a particular study can be generalized to other groups or conditions 

field study

an investigative technique in which behaviors and events are observed and recorded in their natural environment

genetic linkage study

studies that attempt to determine whether a disorder follows a genetic pattern 

hypothesis

a tentative explanation for certain facts or observations

iatrogenic effects

unintended effects of an intervention; such as an unintended change in behavior resulting from a medication or a psychological technique used in treatment

incidence

the number of new cases of a disorder that appear in an identified population within a specified time period

independent variable

a variable or condition that an experimenter manipulates to determine its effect on a dependent variable 

internal validity

the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due solely to the effect of changes in the independent variable

longitudinal research

a research method that involves observing, assessing, or evaluating a group of people over a long period of time

meta-analysis

a statistical method in which researchers combine and analyze the results from numerous studies focused on the same or similar phenomena

multiple-baseline study

a single-participant experimental design in which baselines on two or more behaviors or the same behavior in two or more settings are obtained prior to investigation

operational definitions

a concrete description of the variables that are being studied

penetrance

the proportion of individuals carrying a specific variant of a gene (allele or genotype) who also express the associatied trait (phenotype)

placebo

an ineffectual or sham treatment, such as an inactive substance used as a control in an experimental study

placebo effect

improvement produced by expectations of a positive treatment outcome 

reliability

the reproducibility or consistency of measurements.

scientific method

a method of inquiry that provides for the systematic collection of data, controlled observation, and the testing of hypotheses

single-blind design

an experimental design in which only participants are unaware of the purpose of the research

single-participant experiment

an experiment performed on a single individual in which some aspect of a person’s behavior for comparison with future behaviors

statistical significance

the likelihood that a research finding is not due to chance alone

theory

a group of principles and hypotheses that together explain some aspect of a particular area of inquiry

validity

the extent to which a test, tool, or study measures what it is intended to measure.

anxiety

an anticipatory emotion produces bodily reactions that prepare us for “fight” or “flight”

fear

an intense emotion experienced in response to a threatening situation

anxiety disorder

fear or anxiety symptoms that interfere with an individual’s day-to-day functioning

etiological models

model developed to explain the cause of a disorder

GABA

gamma-aminobutryric acid, an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in inducing sleep and relaxation

serotonin

a neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, appetite, and impulsive behavior

polymorphic variation

a common DNA mutation of a gene

predisposition

a susceptibility to certain symptoms or disorders

behavioral inhibition

shyness

anxiety sensitivity

a trait involving fear of physiological changes within the body

negative appraisal

interpreting events as threatening

reappraisal

minimizing negative responses by looking at a situation from various perspectives 

phobia

a strong, persistent, and exaggerated fear of a specific object or situation

social anxiety disorder

an intense fear of being scrutinized in social or performance situations

comorbid

existing simultaneously with another condition

specific phobia

an extreme fear of a specific object (such as snakes) or a situation (such as being in an enclosed space)

remit

diminish or disappear

agoraphobia

an intense fear of being in public places where escape or help may not be readily available

panic attack

an episode of intense fear accompanied by symptoms such as a pounding heart, trembling, shortness of breath, and fear of losing control or dying

hippocampus

plays a key role in memory formation, organization, and storage.

polymorphic variation

a common DNA mutation of a gene

exposure therapy

a psychological treatment that helps people reduce fear or anxiety by gradually and repeatedly exposing them to the object, situation, or memory they fear — in a safe and controlled environment.

systematic desensitization

behavioral therapy technique used to help people overcome phobias and anxiety disorders by gradually exposing them to the feared object or situation while they practice relaxation techniques.

cognitive restructuring

a cognitive strategy that attempts to alter unrealistic thoughts that are believed to be responsible for fears and anxiety

modeling therapy

a treatment procedure involving observation of an unfearful individual successfully interacting with a phobic object or situation

panic disorder

a condition involving recurrent, unexpected panic attacks with apprehension over future attacks or behavioral changes to avoid attacks

concordance rates

the degree of similarity between twins or family members with respect to a trait or disorder

interoceptive conditioning

when internal bodily sensations of fear and anxiety that have preceded panic attacks serve as signals for new panic attacks

generalized anxiety disorder

a condition characterized by persistent, high levels of anxiety and excessive worry over many life circumstances

obsessive compulsive disorder

a condition characterized by intrusive, repetitive anxiety-producing thoughts or strong need to perform acts or dwell on thoughts to reduce anxiety 

obsessions

an intrusive, repetitive thought or image that produces anxiety

compulsions

the need to perform acts or mental tasks to reduce anxiety

hoarding disorder

a condition involving congested living conditions due to the accumulation of possessions and distress over the thought of discarding them

body dysmorphic disorder 

a condition involving preoccupation with a perceived physical defect or excessive concern over a slight physical defect`

delusion

a false belief that is firmly and consistently held

muscle dysmorphia

a belief that one’s body is too small or insufficiently muscular

trichotillomania

recurrent and compulsive hair pulling that results in hair loss and causes significant distress

excoriation disorder

distressing and recurrent compulsive picking of the skin resulting in skin lesions

endophenotype

measurable trait or characteristic that acts as a bridge between genetic factors and outward behavior or symptoms of a mental disorder.

orbitofrontal cortex

the brain region associated with planning and decision making

caudate nuclei

the deep brain structure that stores and processes memories and signals when something is amiss

striatum

the region within the basal ganglia associated with movement planning, goal-directed action, memory, and decision making

flooding

a technique that involves inducing a high anxiety level through continued actual or imagined exposure to a fear-arousing situation

response prevention

a treatment in which an individual is prevented from performing a compulsive behavior

acute stress disorder

a condition characterized by flashbacks, hyper vigilance, and avoidance symptoms that last up to 1 mo. after exposure to a traumatic stressor 

adjustment disorder

a condition involving reactions to life stressors that are disproportionate to the severity or intensity of the event or situation 

asthma

a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways in the lungs

atherosclerosis

a condition involving the progressive thickening and hardening of the walls of arteries due to an accumulation of fats and cholesterol along their inner linings

aura

a visual or physical sensation (e.g. tingling of an extremity or flashes of light) that precedes a headache

biofeedback training

a physiological and behavioral approach in which an individual receives information regarding particular autonomic functions and is rewarded for influencing those functions in a desired direction