Unit 2 HHD Exam

Fertilisation/conception

A sperm penetrates the ova and the genetic material fuses together to make a single cell called a zygote which occurs in the fallopian tubes

Zygote

Cell created when an ovum is ferilised by an egg

Prenatal stage times

fertilisation - birth

Infancy time

birth - 2

Early childhood

2-6

Late childhood

6-12

Youth

12-18

Early adulthood

18-40

Middle adulthood

40-65

Late adulthood

65-death

Characteristics of prenatal stage

• fastest growth period of all stages

• development of bodys organs and systems

• goes from a single cell to weighing 3.5kg and being 30cm long

• most vulnerable stage

Characteristics of infancy

• rapid growth

• adapt body functions

• develop motor skills

• social interaction begins

Characteristics of early childhood

• slow and steady growth

• social skills develop

Characteristics of late childhood

• physical, social, emotion and intellectual changes

• primary school

Characteristics of youth

• rapid growth

• increased independance

• more complex relationships

• physical and sexual maturity

• focus shift from family to peers

Why is the youth stage no longer called adolesence

Youth encompassed the PIES devlopment whereas adolescence means ‘to grow up‘ which is now only one aspect of this lifespan stage

Why has youth gotten longer

• puberty starting earlier

• young people taking longer to gain independance

Characteristics of early adulthood

• physical peak at 25-30 years

• maintenance and repair of boy

• steady decline

• building a career

• forming relationships

• getting married

• starting a family

Characteristics of middle adulthood

• steady decline

• stability in work

• mature beliefs and values

• physical ageing e.g. menopause

• emptynest syndrome

Emptynest syndrome

Children leaving causing loneliness

Characteristics of late adulthood

• health and wellbeing decline

• retirement

• financial security

• reflection on life with satisfaction or regret

Development

progressive or regressive changes taht occur from fertilisation until death, characterised by milestones that occur in a predictable and sequential order

predictable

expected to happen

sequential

happens in order

Physical development

The changes the occur to the body and its systems

Aspect of physical development

Growth

Changes to body systems

Motor skill development

Social development

the increasing complexity of behaviour patterns used in relationships with other people

Aspects of social development

Behaviours

social rules

relationship skills

communication skills

Emotional development

Experiencing the full range of emotions and learning ways to appropriately express emotions

Aspect of emotional development

Developing self-concept

experiencing the full range of emotions

learning appropriate ways of expressing and communicating emotions

building resilience

Intellectual development

the increase in complexity of processes in the brain such as thought, knowledge and memory

Aspects of intellectual development

knowledge & memory

language

thought patterns and problem solving

creativity and imagination

attention

Relationship

a connection between two or more people or groups of people and their involvement with one another over a period of time

Authoritarian parenting

A style of parenting that employs strict rules, and punishment if rules are broken

Authoritative parenting

A style of parenting that uses positive reinforcement of good behaviours and flexibility in interpretation of rules

Permissive parenting

A style of parenting that is low in discipline and whereby parents see themselves more as friends than parents

uninvolved parenting

A parenting style whereby parents show little interest in their childrens lives

Types of relationships

family

friendships

intimate

online

mentors

professional

Consent

mutual agreement which is given freely and voluntarily

Consent in intimate relationships

Both partners must agree to have sexual intercourse or engage in other intimate sexual behaviours because every person has the right to control their own body

Characteristics of health and respectful relationships

Loyalty

Empathy

Trust

Safety

Honesty

Equality

Respect

Characteristics of good communication

Eye contact

Ask relevant questions

Appropriate volume

Give personal space

show interest

use spoken and body language

Stages of prenatal development

Germinal

Embryonic

Foetal

Why does only one sperm penetrate the egg

Once the sperm penetrates the membrane, other sperm are blocked from entering by changes to the outer surface of the ovum

Why is it important only one sperm penetrates an egg

If more than one sperm were to enter a zyote would have the incorrect amount of genetic information and would not survive

Germinal stage timeline

0-2 weeks

fertilsation - implantation

Morula

When there are 16 cells around 3-4 days after fertilsation

Blastocyst

When there are 64 cells with inner and outer cell mass and hollow fluid filled centre called the blastocyst cavity around 5 days after fertilisation

Implantation

When blastocyst reaches uterus and implants itself in the endometrium and becomes known as embryo

Embryonic stage timeline

3-8 weeks

implantation - week 8

Cell differentiation

When cells take on specialised roles such as heart, skin or bone cells

Organogenesis

When the internal organs and systems begin to form

Why is embryonic stage more critical to development

The brain and spinal cord are almost complete as well as blood circulatory system, neural tube and bones

Teratogens

Anything in the environment that can cause defects in the development of the embryo

e.g. tobacco, alcohol, medications

Foetal stage

9-38 weeks

week 9 - birth

Placenta

Disk shaped temporary organ largely made up of blood vessels that facilitate the exchange of substances between mother and foetus

Supplies with oxygen, nutrients and immune support

produces hormones that prevent ovulation of more ova in mother

Surfuctant

Substance that coats the surface of the lungs to prevent the lung sacs collapsing when the foetus practices breathing

Examples of risk factors during prenatal development

Maternal undernutritionn

Maternal smoking

Maternal alcohol use

What will parents with higher health literacy be more likely to do

Eat well

stay active

take folate

access regular antenatal care

Antenatal care

Monitor the health and wellbeing of mother and baby to provide health education and advice to the mother and promote protective factors

Key nutrients during pregnancy

Folate

Iodine

Iron

Function of folate

Formation of red blood cells that transport oxygen around the body

Prevent neural tube defects

Neural tude defects

damage to the brain and spine and to the nerve tissue of the spinal cord

Function of Iodine

Promotes optimal brain and nervous system development

Impact of reduced iodine during pregnancy

• stunted growth

• intellectual disability

Sources of Iodine

• iodised table salt

• Fish

• Seaweed

Function of Iron

Production of haemoglobin to transfer oxygen in the blood from lungs to tissues

Importance of Iron during pregnancy

Due to increased demands for oxygen for developing foetus

To enlarge reproductive organs of mother

Good sources of iron

Red meat

Green leafy vegetables

Good sources of folate

Green leafy vegetables

Eggs

Foods pregnant woman should avoid

Risk of developing Listeria infection

• soft-serve ice cream

• deli meats

• raw seafood

Characterisitcs of foetal alcohol spectrum disorder

• risk of stillbirth

• Harm to development of the nervous system

• Can narrow the blood vessels in placenta and umbilical cord, restricting blood to foetus

Risks of tobacco while pregnant

• low birth weight

• spontaneous abortion

• lung function abnormalities and respiratory conditions

Characteristics of germinal stage of prenatal development

• cell division begins

• blastocyst implants into the endometrium

Characteristics of embryonic stage of prenatal development

• Embryo is human looking

• Organogenesis begins to occur forming organs such as blood and circulatory system

Characteristics of foetal stage of prenatal development

• Production of surfactant for foetus to practice breathing

• Foetus grows to 3.5kg in weight and 30cm in length

Explain what a general practitioner does

A doctor who has a wide range of skills and knowledge to provide broad healthcare for all age groups from infants to elderly

Services of a General practitioner

• First point of contact for illness, injuries and preventative care

• Offer advice on lifestyle issues such as body weight

• Prescribe medications such as asthma preventers to treat asthma

Health literacy

relates to how people access, understand and use health information and services in ways that promote or maintain health and wellbeing

Allied health services

health professionals outside the medical, dental and nursing professions who are university qualified with expertise in areas such as injury recovery, nutrition, mental health

Examples of allied health services

Physiotherapist

Nutrition

Optometry

Psychologist

Alternative health services

Healthcare that can be sed instead of or alongside traditional health services 

Private health insurance

Youth with parents who have will be able to access allied health services 

Examples of alternative health services

Acupuncture

naturopathy

massage

Explain what Medicare is

• Australia’s universal health insurance scheme

• Funded by the Australian Federal Government

• Aims to provide access to affordable basic healthcare in the public sector

• Gives all Australian’s, permanent residents and people from countries with reciprocal agreements such as New Zealand access to subsidised healthcare

• Children are listed on their parents card and can register for their own at 15

Services provided by Medicare

• Most procedures performed by a GP

• All treatment and accomodation as a public patient in a public hospital

• Child Dental Benefits Scheme

• Up to 10 consultations with a psychologist if referred by a GP who creates a Mental Health Treatment Plan

• 75% of the schedule fee for treatment by doctors or specialists as a private patient

• Eye tests, other tests and examinations such as x-rays required to treat illness

Services not provided by Medicare

• Cosmetic of unnecessary procedures

• Accomodation and other costs in private hospitals

• Most dental examinations and treatment

• Ambulance services

• Home nursing care or treatment

• Allied health services

Advantages of Medicare

• Reduces cost for essential medicare services

• Choice of doctor for out of hospital services

• Available to all Australian citizens

• Reciprocal agreement between Australia and other countries allows Australian to access free healthcare in selected countries

• Medicare safety net

Disadvantages of Medicare

• No choice of doctor for in hospital treatments

• waiting lists for many treatments

• Does not cover alternative therapies or allied health services

• often does not cover the full amount of a doctor’s visit

How is medicare funded

• Medicare Levy

• Medicare levy surcharge 

• General taxation

what is the medicare levy

An additional 2% tax placed on the taxable income of most taxpayers

what is the medicare levy surcharge

people without private health insurance earning more than a certain amount pay an extra tax of 1-1.5% which increases as income increases 

what is General taxation

The revenue collected from the medicare levy and medicare levy surcharge does not meet the full operating costs of medicare and as a results income collected from general taxation is also used to help fund it

Schedule fee

What the government deems to be a fair amount for various services and what Medicare will contribute

Bulk billing

Where only the schedule fee amount is charged and so there is no out of pocket cost by the patient

patient co-payment

where the doctor charges more than the schedule fee so patients pay the costs that medicare does not cover

medicare safety net

Ensures that people who require frequent services covered by Medicare, such as doctor’s visits and tests, receive additional financial support

Explain what the PBS is

• Funded by the Australian federal government

• Subsidy scheme for essential medications

• Medicines on the list are subsidised and patients make a co-payment

How does the PBS safety net work

Reduces cost for individuals and families spending over a certain amount in a calendar year on PBS listed medications so patients will pay a concessional rate for the rest of the calendar year

How are the medications on the PBS list decided on

The Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee which are an independent panel of health professionals, that review medicines three times a year and new medicines can only be listed in the PBAC finds them clinically effective, safe and cost-effective