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What did Sir Francis Galton find about success in families?
He found that success appeared consistently in well-bred, upper-class families (like his own).
What advantages did Galton discount when explaining success?
He discounted advantages like better schools and social connections.
How did Galton explain hereditary success?
He believed it was due to the genetic inheritance of great intelligence.
Who was Sir Francis Galton’s famous cousin?
Charles Darwin
How did Galton apply “survival of the fittest” to intelligence?
He believed intelligence could be quantified and used to breed superior people.
What did Galton propose for people with the greatest ‘natural ability’?
They should be encouraged to breed with each other.
What did Galton believe should happen to those who were less endowed?
They should be discouraged or prevented from reproducing.
What controversial movement did Galton found?
The eugenics movement.
Why did Galton believe intelligence needed an objective measure?
To scientifically quantify intelligence and prove it was hereditary.
What did Galton assume about the mind?
He assumed it was composed of sensations.
How did Galton believe intelligence was linked to sensory abilities?
He thought bright people should have better sensory abilities.
How did Galton attempt to measure intelligence?
By measuring simple sensory processes.
Where did Galton test his ideas on intelligence?
At the 1884 International Exposition in London.
How many people participated in Galton’s intelligence testing at the exposition?
Over 10,000 attendees paid to be tested.
Why did Galton’s intelligence measurements fail?
They were unrelated to scholastic or professional success and did not show the gender differences he predicted.
What famous phrase did Galton coin?
"Nature vs. Nurture."
What statistical concepts did Galton invent?
Correlation and percentile test scores.
How did Galton influence psychology despite his failed measurements?
He stimulated interest in measuring mental ability.
Why was a test commissioned for children with special academic needs?
Why was a test commissioned for children with special academic needs?
Who published the first useful test of mental ability?
Binet and Simon.
In what year did Binet and Simon publish their test?
1905.
What did the Binet-Simon test focus on?
Abstract reasoning.
What made the Binet-Simon test successful?
It was easy to administer, objective, inexpensive, and had good criterion-related validity.
What assumption did Binet make about children's mental development?
All children follow the same course of development but may differ in speed.
Did Binet assume a specific cause for differences in mental development?
No, but he leaned toward an environmental explanation.
How were scores expressed in the Binet-Simon test?
Scores were expressed in terms of "mental age."
What did "mental age" compare?
It compared the mental abilities of a child to those of other children of the same chronological age.
How did Binet describe "dull" children?
He described them as "retarded" (from the French "en retard"), meaning they were behind in their development.
How did Binet describe "bright" children?
He described them as "advanced" in their development.
How many times was the Binet-Simon test revised?
It was revised twice by Binet and then carried on by other psychologists.
Who revised the Binet-Simon test in the U.S.?
Terman at Stanford University.
Why did Terman revise the Binet-Simon test?
The French age norms did not work with California children.
What changes did Terman make to the test?
He altered the content, established new age norms, extended the age range from teenagers to adults, and incorporated a new scoring system (Intelligence Quotient).
How is IQ calculated according to the Stanford-Binet test?
IQ = (Child's mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100.
What advantage did the IQ score provide?
It allowed for comparing children of different ages by placing them all on the same scale.
Why does IQ work well for children but not for adults?
It’s difficult to determine the age norm for adults, such as comparing a 40-year-old to a 25-year-old.
What did the Stanford-Binet IQ become?
It became the standard for all intelligence tests that followed.
What did some people, including Terman, complain about in relation to certain ethnic groups?
They complained about the perceived "dullness" and "prolific breeding" of certain ethnic groups.
What did Terman want the IQ test to lead to?
He wanted it to lead to policies that would stop the reproduction of "feeble-mindedness."
How did Terman contribute to U.S. government policies?
He helped the U.S. government develop tests to evaluate immigrants.
What percentage of Jewish, Hungarian, Italian, and Russian immigrants were deemed "feeble-minded" by these tests?
About 80%
How did Terman's work influence U.S. immigration laws?
It contributed to the 1924 immigration law, which placed quotas on southern and eastern European immigrants.
Where was the Stanford-Binet test also used outside the U.S.?
It was used in Canada, specifically in Alberta and B.C., as the basis for the Sexual Sterilization Act.
How was general intelligence assessed in IQ tests?
It was assessed based on vocabulary.
What issue arose from using vocabulary to assess general intelligence?
It artificially lowered the scores of people who didn’t have English as their first language.
Where did David Wechsler immigrate from and when?
He immigrated to the U.S. from Romania as a child
What label did Terman's tests assign to David Wechsler?
He was labeled "feeble-minded" by Terman’s tests.
What intelligence scale did Wechsler develop?
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
What other intelligence tests did Wechsler develop?
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI).
What new type of reasoning did Wechsler introduce in his intelligence tests?
Non-verbal reasoning items.
What separate scores are included in the Wechsler scales?
Verbal IQ, performance (non-verbal) IQ, and full-scale (total) IQ.
How did Wechsler update the scoring scheme for IQ tests?
He introduced a scoring scheme based on the normal distribution and abandoned the "quotient" in IQ.
What is the common feature of most IQ tests, including the revised Stanford-Binet?
They use the normal distribution.
What are the two types of IQ tests?
Individual tests (e.g., SB5, WAIS-IV) and group tests (e.g., Cognitive Abilities Test, CAT).
How are IQ scores based on normal distribution?
Most cases fall near the center of the bell curve, with fewer cases as you move away from the mean (M).
How are raw scores converted to IQ scores?
Raw scores are converted to deviation IQ scores based on where you score according to test norms.
What are the mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) for IQ tests?
M = 100 and SD = 15.
What is the main focus of mental ability tests?
To measure a person’s intellectual capabilities and potential.
What are the three types of mental ability tests?
Intelligence tests (general), aptitude tests (specific), and achievement tests.
What do personality scales measure?
They measure motives, interests, values, and attitudes.
What is standardization in psychological testing?
The process of establishing test norms and a standardization group to ensure consistency in test administration and scoring.
What are test norms?
Data that allow an individual’s test score to be compared to a representative sample.
What is a standardization group?
A group of individuals whose test performance is used as a baseline for interpreting scores.
What is reliability in psychological testing?
The consistency of a test’s results over time.
What statistical measure is used to assess reliability?
The correlation coefficient.
What is validity in psychological testing?
The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
What are the three types of validity?
Content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity.
What does a positive correlation indicate?
two variables co-vary in the same direction.
What does a negative correlation indicate?
two variables co-vary in opposite directions.
What does it mean when the correlation coefficient is close to -1.00 or +1.00?
The closer it is to these values, the stronger the relationship between the variables.
What is the minimum requirement for reliability estimates in psychological tests?
They must be moderately high positive correlations.
What is the typical range for reliability coefficients in psychological tests?
Between 0.70 and 0.95.
How is criterion-related validity evaluated in a pilot aptitude test?
By correlating test scores with a criterion measure, such as performance ratings in a pilot training program.
What supports the validity of a test in criterion-related validity?
If high test scores are associated with high criterion scores, showing a substantial correlation.
What happens if little or no relationship exists between test scores and the criterion measure?
The data do not support the validity of the test.
How reliable are IQ tests?
They are exceptionally reliable, with correlations in the .90s.
What type of intelligence do IQ tests validly measure?
They are valid indicators of academic and verbal intelligence but not general intelligence in a broad sense.
What is the correlation between IQ and school success?
Between .40 and .50.
What is the correlation between IQ and years of schooling completed?
Between .60 and .80.
What does IQ predict about occupational attainment?
It is predictive of occupational attainment, though there is debate about its ability to predict job performance.
What is a major consideration when using IQ tests in other cultures?
Cultural differences can affect test validity and interpretation.
How is intellectual disability diagnosed?
Based on IQ and adaptive testing.
What IQ score range qualifies as intellectual disability?
2 or more standard deviations below the mean (IQ ≤ 70).
What are the three key criteria for diagnosing intellectual disability?
Low IQ, adaptive skill deficits, and onset before age 18.
What are the four levels of intellectual disability?
Mild, moderate, severe, and profound.
Which level of intellectual disability is the most common?
Mild
What are the two main causes of intellectual disability?
Environmental and biological factors.
How is giftedness typically identified?
IQ 2 standard deviations above the mean (IQ ≥ 130), but also includes factors like creativity, leadership, and special talents.
What are common stereotypes about gifted individuals?
That they are weak, socially inept, and emotionally troubled.
What did Lewis Terman’s (1925) study reveal about gifted individuals?
It largely contradicted stereotypes, showing they were well-adjusted and successful.
What distinction did Ellen Winner (1997) make in giftedness?
She differentiated between moderately gifted and profoundly gifted individuals.
What did Joseph Renzulli (2002) propose about giftedness?
It results from the intersection of three factors: intelligence, creativity, and task commitment.
What is Simonton’s (2001) theory on giftedness?
He proposed the "drudge theory" (effort-based success) and inborn talent as two possible explanations.
What does "hidden gifted" refer to?
Individuals who have exceptional abilities but may not be recognized due to factors like socioeconomic status or learning differences.
What studies support the role of heredity in intelligence?
Family and twin studies, as well as heritability estimates.
What environmental factors influence intelligence?
Adoption studies, cumulative deprivation hypothesis, and the Flynn effect.
What is the cumulative deprivation hypothesis?
The idea that prolonged environmental deprivation can lead to a decline in IQ.
What is the Flynn effect?
The worldwide increase in IQ scores over time, likely due to improved living conditions and education.
What is the reaction range in intelligence?
The genetically determined limits on IQ, within which environment determines where an individual falls.
What was Arthur Jensen’s (1969) controversial claim about IQ?
He argued that genetic differences were responsible for racial IQ disparities.
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