Geo option G urban environments

Settlement

A place where people live permanently, containing homes and usually services such as shops, schools, roads, or hospitals.

Sphere of influence

The area from which a settlement or service attracts people/customers. German border towns/shops have a sphere of influence that extends into the Netherlands if Dutch people regularly travel there for cheaper groceries, fuel, or other goods.

Range

The furthest distance people are willing to travel to buy a good or use a service.
Eg. you might travel 2 minutes for bread, but 1 hour for a specialist hospital.

Threshold

The minimum number of customers needed for a shop or service to survive and stay open.
Example: a small village does not have enough people to sustain a luxury car shop

Low-order goods

Cheap, everyday items bought often, so people usually do not travel far for them → low range & low threshold.

Eg. bread, milk, newspapers.

High-order goods

more expensive or specialised items bought less often, so people are willing to travel farther for them → larger range & larger threshold.

Examples: cars, designer watches, specialist electronics.

Megacity

City with a population of 10 million +

Eg. Tokyo, Delhi, Lagos, Cairo, NYC, LA, Istanbul, Sao Paulo

Millionaire city

City with 1mil+ inhabitants

Eg. London, Austin

How is land used in urban areas

Residential - where people live

Industrial - manufacturing industries that process raw materials

Services - education, retail, healthcare, entertainment amenities

Open space - parks, gardens, rivers

Recreation - open spaces that include sport centers, gyms, playground

Transport routes

What is vertical zoning?

When one building has multiple floors used for different functions. Eg. a store on the bottom and someone living on the floor up. Common in urban areas to save space and money because land costs money, so vertical zoning is easier.

Big challenges of megacities (how to get to tokyo)

1) Transportation. It is very expensive to be able to build transport hubs and establish a good transpo hub like tokyo. Taxpayers can pay for it, but it is still

2) Housing. A large influx of people (especially those who are illiterate and cannot afford housing) usually overwhelms housing. This leads to a lot of slums

Urbanization for economic development - Commercial

Cities act as places where goods and services are bought and sold. For example, a farmer can sell crops in a city market, supermarkets can buy from suppliers, banks can lend money, and companies can trade with each other. This helps economic development because more trade and business activity creates income and jobs.

Urbanization for economic development - Industrial

Cities provide workers, factories, infrastructure and access to transport. For example, a clothing company might build a factory near a large city because there are lots of workers available and good roads to move products. This helps because manufacturing creates jobs, exports and tax revenue.

Urbanization for economic development - Political

Many cities, especially capitals, are centres of government and decision-making. For example, ministries, parliaments and embassies are often located in major cities. This can support development because government decisions, investment and national planning are coordinated there.

Urbanization for economic development - Administratively

Cities provide major services such as hospitals, universities, schools, courts and government offices. For example, one large hospital in a city can serve hundreds of thousands of people. This helps development because education and healthcare improve the quality and productivity of the workforce.

Urbanization for economic development - Social

Social function: cities bring lots of different people together. For example, people from different regions, cultures and occupations may study, work and live together. This can increase the spread of new ideas, skills and innovation, which can support economic development.

Rapid urbanization causes deterioration

• Unemployment/underemployment → more people arrive than there are suitable jobs.

• Housing shortages → slums/squatter settlements because affordable formal housing can't keep up.

• Overcrowded transport → roads and public transport weren't designed for so many people.

• Air, water and noise pollution → more vehicles, industries, waste and people.

• Service shortages → hospitals, public transport and waste collection become overwhelmed.

• Inequality → wealthier people may have excellent services while poorer residents have very limited access.

• Poor sanitation/water supply → increases the risk of disease.

• Social problems → poverty and unemployment can contribute to problems such as crime and homelessness.

• Lower perceived quality of life because overcrowding, pollution, congestion and poor services make living conditions worse.

Bid rent of land

How much different land users are willing/able to pay for land in different parts of a city.

Why is land in the CBD so expensive

• The CBD is usually the most accessible part of the city, with many roads and public transport routes meeting there.

• This makes it very desirable for shops, offices and businesses, because they can reach lots of customers and workers.

• There is also very little land available in the city centre.

• Therefore, high demand + limited supply = high land prices/rent.