Psychology Final Exam Cumulative Set

Functionalism

An early perspective in psychology associated with William James in which the focus of study is how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.

Structuralism

Early perspective in psychology associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener, in which the focus of study is the structure of basic elements of the mind.

Objective Introspection

The process of examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities.

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking; in learning, awareness of how well we understand a topic.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person's behavior other than sexual motivations.

Behavioral Perspective

Operant Conditioning

The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.

Humanistic Perspective

The third force in psychology that focuses on those aspects of personality that make people uniquely human, such as subjective feelings and freedom of choice.

Cognitive Perspective

Modern perspective in psychology that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem-solving, and learning.

Mental Processes

Internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior

Behaviors

Observable actions of responses of humans or animals

Psychoanalysis

an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud's term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Study of what happens in the brain to support cognition.

Sociocultural Perspective

Perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture, in which thinking and behavior are seen as the products of learning and shaping within the context of one's family, social group, and culture.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence and are influenced by social groups; area of psychology in which psychologists focus on how human behavior is affected by the presence of other people.

Cultural Psychology

The field in psychology that is focused on how culture shapes human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, emphasizing that psychological processes are not universal but are deeply influenced by cultural contexts and practices.

Cross-Cultural Research

Systemically studies human psychology and behavior across different cultures to understand variations and universal patterns, often using comparative methods to test the generalizability of theories and findings.

Biopsychology

The specialty in psychology that explores the biological basis of behavior and mental processes.

Biopsychological Perspective

Perspective that attributes human and nonhuman behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system.

Schizophrenia

a psychotic disorder in which the person experiences disordered thinking, bizarre behavior, hallucinations, and inability to distinguish between fantasy and reality.

Delusions

False beliefs held by a person who refuses to accept evidence of their falseness.

Hallucinations

False sensory perceptions, such as hearing voices that do not really exist.

Altruism

Prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of reward and may not involve the risk of harm to oneself.

Psychologist

A professional with an academic degree and specialized training in more areas of psychology.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method where subjects are observed in their natural environment without researcher interference to study authentic behaviors.

Pseudoscience

A system of theories, assumptions, and methods mistakenly regarded as based in science and the scientific method.

Observer Bias

Tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.

Observer Effect

Tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.

Participant Observation

A naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed.

Case Study

Study of one individual in great detail.

Representative Sample

Randomly selected sample of participants from a larger population of participants.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

Independent Variable

Variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

Variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the participants in the experiment.

Experimental Group

Participants in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.

Control Group

Participants in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which the expectation of the participants in a study can influence their behavior.

Experimenter Effect

Tendency of the experimenter's expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study.

Psychoanalysis

An insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of unconscious conflicts; Freud's term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it.

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Edward Titchner

Introduced structuralism which relied on introspection. Studied under Wundt for many years.

William James

Founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment. Was an important person in bringing psychology to the United States. Established the first experimental psychology demonstration laboratory in the U.S. at Harvard.

Burrhus Skinner

Developed behavior analysis, a psychological discipline that uses respondent and operant conditioning to change human and animal behavior. He invented the operant conditioning chamber.

Nervous System

An extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Neuroscience

A branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.

Biological Psychology

Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

Behavioral Neuroscience

Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning.

Dendrites

Branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons.

Soma

The cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

Axon

Tubelike structure of a neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals for communication with other cells.

Axon terminals

Enlarged ends of the axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide support for the neurons to grown on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons.

Myelin

Fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

Nerves

Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body.

Conduction Velocity

The measure of which how quickly electrical signals travel along a nerve.

Salutatory Conduction

A process in the nervous system where electrical signals (action potentials) propagate rapidly along myelinated axons.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath which disrupts the transmission of nerve signals. Can cause vision issues, issues with the senses, mouth and speech, etc.

Diffusion

Process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

Electrostatic Pressure

A force in a neuron resulting from attraction between opposite charges that causes ions to move. For example, at rest, the negatively charged interior of a neuron attracts positively charged sodium (Na+) ions from the positively charged exterior creating electrostatic pressure for Na+ to enter the cell.

Semipermeable

(of a material or membrane) allowing certain substances to pass through it but not others especially allowing the passage of a solvent but not of certain solutes.

Resting potential

The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse.

Synaptic Vesicles

Sacklike structures that contain neurotransmitters and are found within the axon terminal.

Synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. Transmission usually happening trough chemical means.

Excitatory Synapse

Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

Inhibitory Synapse

Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

Antagonists

Chemical Substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that is both excitatory and inhibitory that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood.

ACh

A neurotransmitter that is both excitatory and inhibitory that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. Also important in the sleep-wake cycle.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning, memory, problem solving reasoning, and motor control.

GABA

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays a role in calming down nerve activity. Can help reduce anxiety, fear, and stress. Helps to promote sleep, muscle relaxation, and seizure control.

Reuptake

The process where neurotransmitters or chemical messengers in the brain are reabsorbed by the nerve cell that released them after they have transmitted a signal so they can be recycled.

Dopamine

An excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter that is important for feelings of pleasure, reward, and motivation. Important for attention and focus, and heart rate and blood pressure regulation.

Norepinephrine

Generally considered an excitatory neurotransmitter that is important for regulating blood pressure, attention and focus, FIGHt OR FLIGHT response, regulating anxiety, fear, and stress as well as the sleep wake cycle.

Endorphins

Are inhibitory neurotransmitters that are natural opioid-like chemicals that are produced by the body that act as pain relievers and mood boosters.

Lesioning

Insertion of a thing insulated electrode into the brain though which an electrical current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the wire. Used to study the brain.

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB)

Sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate (activate) it in order to study the brain. It is also used to treat conditions like epilepsy, OCD, Depression etc.

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

A surgical procedure that involved implanting electrodes in specific areas of the brain to treat certain neurological disorders and to study the brain. It can be used to treat Parkinson's disease, OCD, and epilepsy,

Optogenetics

A technique that controls that activity of neurons or other cells with types of light. Used to study the brain and map function connectivity of the brain.

Noninvasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS)

A technique that uses external magnetic or electrical fields to modulate brain activity without surgically implanting electrodes. It can be used to study the brain and is used for treating neurological and psychiatric conditions such as depression, stroke recovery, chronic pain, and Parkinson's disease by stimulating target areas to restore lost functions.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

a treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person's scalp to stimulate specific areas of the brain. It can be used to treat major depressive disorder, OCD, PTSD. It is also used to study the brain and map brain activity.

Repetitive TMS (rTMS)

a rapid series of TMS pulses that is used to treat Major Depressive Disorder, OCD, etc. Helps to map brain networks and understand neural plasticity.

CT Scans

Brain imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.

MRI

Brain imaging method that uses radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce images of the brain. More accurate than CT scans.

MRI Spectroscopy

MRI Imaging except it focuses on specific tissues and their metabolic activity.

DTI diffusion tensor imaging

an imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain

EEG

A recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skill, most often using scalp electrodes.

ERP

A neuroimaging technique derived from EEGs that produced millisecond by millisecond record of the brains electrical activity. Allows researchers to study the neural timing of cognitive processes.

MEG

A noninvasive technique for measuring brain activity that maps brain activity by recording magnetic fields produced by electrical currents in the brain.

PET

Brain imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer complies a color-coded image of the activity of the brain.

fMRI

MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas though changes in brain oxygenation.

Cerebellum

Part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement and may have some cognitive functions. Controls things like you posture, and smooths out your fine motor skills like riding a bike or walking.

The Reticular Formation

A network of interconnected neurons and nerve fibers located in the brainstem. Plays a crucial role in Arousal and consciousness. It help you to become aware of things in your environment you need to be aware of. It receives and processes sensory information from different parts of the body. It also filters out stagnant things like the sound of an AC running.

Pons

Helps with the cerebellum helps to time coordination and inhibit certain muscle movements. Inhibits movement during sleep.

Medulla

The first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions like breathing swallowing and heart rate.

Thalamus

Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes sensory information before sending it to its proper area.

Hypothalamus

Controls pituitary gland. Small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivation behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, sex, and some of the autonomic systems. Its location right above the pituitary gland is how it does so much and is so small. because it directs the pituitary gland.

Hippocampus

Curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term declarative memories.

Amygdala

brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear as well as other negative emotions.

Cerebrum

The upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them.