Biology 189A - Chapter 1, 2, 3, 4 Study Guide

How do scientists define life?

through CELLS.

all organisms and living individuals consist of ONE or MORE CELLS.

What are the 5 characteristics of life?

1. Organization

2. Energy

3. Homeostasis

4. Reproduction: Requires 2 individual to reproduce

Growth & Development: an infant who grows and developed into a teenager.

5. Evolution: where the population evolves and NOT individuals.

Can you describe these 5 characteristics in your own words?

1. Organization: cells>tissue>organs>organ systems>organisms

2. Energy: life requires energy. Autotrophs (plants) requires the sun to produce energy, as for Heterotrophs need to consume other organisms to gain energy

3. Homeostasis: uses the internal state of consistency. Regulate body temperature

4. Reproduction, Growth, Development

5. Evolution

Can you provide real-life examples of each of these 5 characteristics?

Organization: skeletal muscles are organized in our body

Energy Use: plants uses the sunlight to produce energy

Homeostasis: When the human body senses the body is under temperature, it would return the body back to temperature.

Reproduction: 2 individual reproducing for the next generation

Growth & Development: A child grows to become a teenager and a teenage grows to become an adult and an adult becomes old age.

Evolution: Increasing number in bacteria, which causes the increasing number of antibiotic (drugs)

Can you explain why a living organism must have all 5 characteristics?

A living organism must have all 5 characteristics of life because it is a crucial role in our organisms to survive, reproduce, grow, and adapt to the environment.

Verbally walk me through the 3 domains of life.

1. Domain Bacteria

- lack of nuclei

- most are

unicellular

2. Domain Archaea

- lack of nuclei

- most are unicellular

3. Domain Eukarya

- contains nuclei

- multiple kingdoms

What is a node?

Node: Last common ancestor

What is a root?

Root: beginning of ancestors

What is a branch and a branch length?

the amount of change that happened since the separated of ancestors

How can someone rank how closely related organisms found on the tree are to one another

The branch are the branches of life.

Walk me through how we organize life from most inclusive category to least inclusive. Do you remember the correct order to categories from most inclusive to least inclusive?

Least to Greatest

Domain, Kingdom, Phylus, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

What grammar rules do scientists follow to write the genus & species of an organism?

two words: HOMO SAPIEN

In your own words, explain why science is considered a continuous process.

because science believe that it is rapidly changing field and doesn't really have a true end answer.

In your own words, summarize the differences between a theory and a hypothesis. How would you recognize the difference between the two?

Theory: an explanation for a natural phenomena

Hypothesis: an explanation that is made for an observable phenomena . (must be testable)

Walk me through how scientific inquiry (the scientific method) is done. Could you take a blank piece of paper and write down every step in the correct order?

Steps in Order:

Observation

Ask Question

Hypothesis

Predict

Experiment

What does it mean to write a falsifiable hypothesis?

CAN NOT be proven

How do you know that a hypothesis is falsifiable?

can not be accepted or rejected

What topics are scientists unable to design falsifiable hypotheses for? Why?

Pseudoscience

What is the difference between anecdotal evidence and information from controlled experiments?

Anecdotal Evidence: based on someone's testimony

Controlled Experiment: shows proof of evidence

In your own words, explain why correlation does not necessarily mean causation?

because it has a connection between 2 variable DOES NOT mean that one cause the other

How would you recognize the difference between correlation and causation in data provided to you?

through IV (Independent Variables) & DV (Dependent Variables)

In your own words, explain why sample size in an experiment is so important?

Sample Size are individuals assigned to each treatment

It is important because it can determine the estimate and conclusion of the experiment

In your own words, explain:

1) what an independent variable is,

2) what a dependent variable is,

3) what a standardized variable is,

4) what a control (placebo) is.

What would you look for in an experiment to help you to determine what 1-4 (above) are in that specific experiment?

Independent Variables: X-axis, a factor that is purposefully changed to see its impact on some other factor

Dependent Variables: the factor that is measured to see if how it changed deoendig on the IV (independent variables)

Standardized Variables: conditions held constant for ALL subjects in order

Control (placebo): a group that DOES NOT receive treatment

Why should scientists include randomization in their experimental design?

to establish a cause and effect relationship to make sure the results are accurate.

Why should scientists take into account the placebo effect in their experimental design?

To see the difference between the treated and untreated patients.

What is a blind method?

a procedures in which the patients are in an experiment but does not know what test they will be receiving.

Why should scientist implement the blind method in their experimental design?

to prevent research outcomes from being influenced by the placebo effect

What is the difference between single, double, and triple blind?

Single bond: the subject (patient) does not know if they are the experimental test subjects or the control group

Double Blind: both the testers and the subject (patient) are blinded and are not told of their identify

Triple Blind: neither the subjects (patient) nor the testers know which subject is receiving treatment or placebo.

Why should scientists have their written work undergo peer review before they publish their results?

To independently evaluate the validity of the method, data and conclusions

What are some issues in scientific inquiry? Describe in your own words how you would identify each type.

Scientific Method is neither full proof nor always easy to implement.

Identifying each type by distinguishing the observations or experiment results

In your own words, what is pseudoscience? Can you provide real-life examples of pseudoscience?

Pseudoscience: Beliefs that mistakenly based in scientific method.

Example: Horoscope

In your own words, what is a scientific myth? Can you provide real-life examples of scientific myths?

Scientific Myths: Myths that are believed to have scientific evidence

Example: We use ONLY 10% of our brain.

Can you sketch and label an atom?

Atoms: even protons, electrons and neutrons

What are the 3 subatomic particles that can be found in an atom? How can you identify them base on charge?

Where are they located in the atom?

How can you identify them based on charge?

Protons - positive charge (location: inside)

Electrons - negative charge (location: inside)

Neutral - No charge (location: outside)

Can you list the 6 elements that make up 98% of the mass of most organisms?

1. Phosphorus

2. Hydrogen

3. Oxygen

4. Nitrogen

5. Carbon

6. Sulfur

In your own words, what is atomic number? What information does the atomic number of an atom provide me about the atom's components?

Atomic Number = located at the top of the element

also know as the protons

How is atomic number related to arrangement of atoms in the periodic table?

Elements arranged by their atomic number, which is at the top of the periodic table

In your own words, what is atomic mass?

What information does the atomic mass of an atom provide me about the atom's components?

Atomic Mass = the total of the weighed average of the atoms in an element

also known as the isotopes total number of protons and neutrons

In your own words, what are isotopes?

How would you recognize isotopes?

Isotopes: different element are form from the same element

Recognize an Isotopes: Same protons, but different neutrons

In your own words, what are ions?

How would you recognize ions?

How does charge determine ion type?

Ions: gained or lost an electrons

Cation- lose an electron

Anion- gained an electron

In your own words, compare and contrast nuclear reactions vs chemical reactions.

Chemical Reaction: interactions between two atom

Nuclear Reaction: process that alters energy of the atom nuclei

In chemical reactions, what part of the atom should we focus on? Why?

The outer electron shell of each atom is importantly in the chemical reaction because that is where the electron transfer and share.

In your own words, what is electronegativity?

Electronegativity measures the atoms ability to attract electrons on a scale of 0-4

How can we use the periodic table to help us estimate an element's level of electronegativity?

Electronegativity levels decreases as we move from the top to the bottom

How do row and column placement affect this estimate?

Elements are arranged according to their number of valence electrons (columns) and their number of shells (row)

In your own words, explain the difference between nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, and ionic bonds.

How would you recognize what type of bond you are seeing between two atoms?

Nonpolar Bonds: shared between 2 electrons

Polar Covalent Bonds: shared unequally between 2 atoms

Ionic Bonds: not shared, but are transferred from one to another

Recognize by the

their electronegativity between the atom.

How can you determine how many electrons are involved in a bond?

Bonding electrons are BETWEEN two atom

Non-bonding electrons are with ONLY one atom

Why is molecular polarity so important when discussing molecules?

Molecular is important because it measures of how exactly the electrons are shared in a bond.

How can you determine whether or not a molecule is asymmetric (polar) or symmetric (nonpolar) with regard to their charge distribution?

How would you recognize a hydrogen bond?

Who is involved in a hydrogen bond?

Hydrogen Bond: attract each other

Attractions are between hydrogen and electronegative ions O, N, F,

What can you tell me about the properties of water?

Cohension: attracting each other

Adhension: adding another substance or molecules.

In your own words, what does it mean to be hydrophilic? hydrophobic?

How does this relate to a molecule being polar? nonpolar? charged?

Hydrophilic: dissolve in water.

Either polar or charged.

Hydrophobic: DO NOT interact with water. Nonpolar.

Walk me through the pH scale. How does the pH scale relate to H+ concentration?

What does it mean for a compound to be acidic? To be basic? To be neutral?

pH SCALE:

0.6 - Acidic

7 - Neutral

8-14 - Base

What are the four major types of macromolecules?

1. Carbonhydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic Acids

Why is carbon such an important element to life as we know it?

What can you tell me about its electron configuration?

Carbon: essential blocks of organic life

configuration: 2s2 ; 2p2

What are hydrocarbons and how would you recognize that a molecule is a hydrocarbon?

Hydrocarbon consist almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen.

Base on their long chains, indicating branches and rings.

What are alcohols and how would you recognize that a molecule is an alcohol?

Alcohol is an organic compound that is attached to a carbon (hydrocarbon chain)

What 3 elements are key components of carbohydrates?

What ratio do we find these elements in when talking about carbohydrates?

What other terms can we use to name carbohydrates?

What roles do carbohydrates play?

Carbon - Hydrogen - Oxygen 1:2:1

also refers to as the SACCHARIDES (sugar)

Carbs provide quick energy and support cells

Organisms store energy

What do we call simple sugars?

What do we call chains of sugars?

How are chains of sugars formed, walk me through the reaction. What type of reaction is this?

How are chains of sugars broken, walk me through this reaction.

What type of reaction would this be?

Simple Sugar called Monosaccharides = Monomers

Chain of Sugar called Polysaccharides = Polymers

Monomers can be joined to form a polymer through dehydration synthesis

Polymers can be broken into monomers through their hydrolysis.

Give me examples of carbohydrate polymers discussed in class and their roles.

Starch

explanation: starch can be digestible by humans. Starch can be broken down to glucose by the amylase (an enzyme)

What are some characteristics of lipids and their roles?

Lipids: made up of monomers, fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.

Triglycerides: consisted of fatty acids bound to glycerol. a 3-carbon molecules that forms a backbone to the triglycerides.

Phospholipids: main component of cell membrane. Composed of polar glycerol head (hydrophilic) and a 2 non-polar acid tails (hydrophobic)

Steroids: rigid backbone fused with 4-carbon rings

Waxes: composed of long-saturated chain of fatty acids line to ALCOHOL.

Walk me through the different types of lipids discussed in class. How would you recognize the specific lipid type? What are some key components (such as functional groups) that could help you in this process?

Triglycerides: 3-carbon fatty acid chain

Key Component: fatty acid ; glycerol

Phospholipids: similar to the triglycerides, but replaces one fatty acid by a phosphate group

Key Component: phosphate group, two fatty acids

Steroids: 4-carbon fused ring

Key Component: Four fused rings, attached to various rings

Waxes: long chain of fatty acids changing into long chain alcohol. Long hydrocarbon chains with an ester linkage.

Key Component: long fatty acid chain, long chain alcohol

What is the difference between saturated & unsaturated?

How do these designations relate to how lipid molecules respond to temperature?

Saturated: have no double bonds; solid at room temperature

Unsaturated: contains more than one double bonds in the fatty acids; liquid in room temperature

Response to room temperature: saturated fat have more higher melting points while unsaturated have a lower melting point

Compare and contrast lipids and carbohydrates as energy resources.

Lipids = more energy dense used for long term energy storage

Carbohydrates: less-energy but provides quick energy and more readily accessible.

Walk me through how and why phospholipids behave a certain way in water.

Phospholipids behave in water due to their amphipathic nature that leads to their bilayers

Sketch me an amino acid and label the components of the amino acid?

On the left side will be the amino acid.

Amino Acid contains NH2

Center will be (C)arbon

Above the Carbon will be another (H)ydrogen

below the Carbon is the (R group)

Right side is the Carboxyl Group containing C=O , C-OH

What part of the amino acid determines the specific type of amino acid?

What kind of bond is formed between two amino acids?

How is it formed? What parts of the amino acid are involved?

The specific type of amino acid is determined by the side chain is the R Group.

The bond is formed between amino acid called the peptide bond,

Peptide bond occurs during the dehydration synthesis reaction

Walk me through the levels of structure in proteins. Explain how proteins are able to attain these structures. How does the word denaturing relate to structure?

Proteins achieve their functional forms through a hierarchical structure, and denaturing disrupts these structures, impairing their function.

Walk me through the different roles of proteins discussed in lecture.

Proteins are versatile molecules that perform a wide range of functions essentials for life. They act as enzymes, provide structural support, transport and store molecules, facilitate communication and signaling, enable movement, participate in immune responses, regulate gene expression, and catalyze metabolic pathways.

Why do misfolded or missing proteins cause many disorders?

the proper folding and presence of proteins are crucial for maintaining cellular health and function. Misfolded or missing proteins disrupt these processes, leading to various disorders.

Compare and contrast DNA & RNA. How could you recognize one or the other?

DNA - a double stranded and stable. Contains: Thymine and Deoxyribose

RNA - single-stranded, NOT stable. Contains Uracil and Ribose.

How would you recognize a purine versus a pyrimidine?

Which bases form pairs? What holds the base pairs together?

Which base pair is strongest? Why?

Purine - 2 rings

Pyrimidine - 1 ring

In DNA, Adenine (A) is paired with Thymine (T) and Guanine (G) paired with Cytosine (C)

A —> T

G —> C

In RNA, Adenine (A) is paired with Uracil (U)

Pair G —> C pairs are being the strongest due to having 3 hydrogen bonds compared to A —> T pairs

Walk me through the Central Dogma of Biology. Be sure to include all parts discussed in class.

Central Dogma of Biology describes the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein, highlighting the process of republication, transcription, and translation.

Walk me through the 3 principles of cell theory.

3 principles of cell theory

1. all living things are contain 1 or more cells

2. All living things composed of cells

3. all cells come from preexisting cells

Explain to me why cells are limited with regard to size.

the surface area to the volume gets smaller as the cells gets larger meaning that if the cells grow beyond a certain limit, not enough materal will be able to cross the membrane enough to accommodate the increased cellular

Draw me a chart that compares and contrasts prokaryotes and eukaryotes from memory.

Prokaryotes:

Bacteria and Archaea

- No Membrane

- Nucleoid

- Small Size

- unicellular

Eukaryote:

Animals

- Domains: Animalia, Protista, Fungi, Plantae

- Membrane bound

- Larger Size

- Multicellular Kingdom

What four components do both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have?

1. Chromosomes (DNA & Proteins)

2. Cytoplasms: jelly like fluid

3. Plasma membrane

4.Ribosome: Protein Synthesis

What are the four major components of the plasma membrane? Classify each of these components into one of the four major macromolecule categories.

1. Cholesterols

2. Phosopholipids

3. Sugar

4. Proteins

What does it mean for the phospholipid bilayer to be semipermeable?

What would happen if this membrane were completely permeable?

Completely impermeable?

Phospholipid bilayer is a SEMIPERMEABLE membrane because it is a layer that ONLY certain molecules can pass through.

- keep their content separated from the environment and other cells

Permeable: any substance, bad or good could enter

Impermeable: wouldnt be able to go inside or outside the cell.

- would be constant!

Walk me through the different types of membrane proteins and their roles.

1. Structual Support

2. Communication

3. Adhesion: allows them to STICK to one another

4. Transport: passageway for many of the cells

5. Recognition Protein (Carbohydrates): nametag

6. Enzyme: Chemical Reaction

Sketch me a prokaryotic cell. Be sure to label its components.

1. DNA = mRNA

2. Nuclear Envelop: Nuclear Pore

3. Binds to Ribosome

4. Endoplasmic Reticulum

5. Golgi Apparatus

6. Lysomnones

Sketch me an animal cell. Be sure to label its components.

1. Center: Nucleolus

2. Outside the center with holes: Nuclear Pores

3. Right above the Nuclear Pore is the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER)

4. the jelly bean look: Lysosome

5. Smooth Enoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER) near the Lysosome

6. Golgi Apparatus

7. Ribosome

8. Cell Membrane

9. Mitochondrion

10. Cytoplasm

Sketch me a plant cell. Be sure to label its components.

1. Cell Wall

2. Nuceloplasm

3. Nucleus

4. Cytoplasm

5. Golgi Apparatus

Make a chart of all of the major components discussed in eukaryotic cells from memory. Be sure to include name and function. Add a column to your chart called "malfunction". In this category explain the potential consequences if this component failed or malfunctioned in a cell.

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Cytoskeleton

Ribosomes

Mitochondria

Lysosomes

Golgi Apparatus

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough and Smooth ER

Walk me through the eukaryotic cell using the central dogma of biology as your guide.

DNA undergoes republication and transcription and protein are made in the cytoplasm

RNA must therefore travel across the nuclear membrane before it can undergo translation.

Why would the number of organelles in a cell vary depending on the type of cell?

Different types of cells have different amount of organelles. For instance, cells that use a lot of energy tends to contain large numbers of mitochondria

Why are mitochondria and chloroplasts considered endosymbionts? (What evidence supports this?)

both contains their own DNA and ribosomes.

Compare and contrast heterotrophs and autotrophs. How would you know which one an organism is?

Autotrophs: 'Primary Consumers'

Auto: Self

Trophs: Feeders

Heterotrophs: 'Consumers'

Hetero: Other feeders

Describe the different types of "forms" that energy can take.

1. Photosynthesis: Primary energy to the biosphere

2. Potential Energy: stored energy

3. Kinetic Energy: energy of movement

4. Mechanical Energy

5. Chemical Energy

6. Thermal Energy

What is meant by potential energy?

a stored object due to its position or condition

What are the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics?

1st Law of Thermodynamics:

can NOT be created or destroyed

can ONLY be transformed

2nd Law of Thermodynamics:

Entropy: a measure of disorder in a closed system.

Describe entropy in your own words. What role does entropy play in the 2nd law of thermodynamics?

Entropy is a measure of disorder or randomness

Entropy increases as energy is released; Heat energy is disordered because of random molecular movement

higher hear = higher entropy

How can temperature effect entropy? Explain how entropy relates to building and breaking of large molecules.

Temperature effect Entropy with the increase of temperature, entropy would increase.

Entropy building: Entropy decrease in the system but increases in the surroundings when

Entropy breaking: Entropy will increase in the system. (disorder happens spontaneously, required energy)

Compare and contrast anabolism and catabolism.

Anabolism: process of BUILDING up complex molecules from smaller ones to require energy

Catabolism: process of BREAKING down complex molecules into smaller one, releasing energy

Compare and contrast endergonic and exergonic reactions. How can you tell if a reaction is endergonic or exergonic?

Sketch both types of reactions in a graph. Be sure to label reactants and products.

Exergonic: a chemical reaction where their is a release of 'free' energy (breaking or releasing energy)

-- energy is EXiting

(graph would be going from high (top) to low (bottom)

Endergonic: required energy to build

-- energy is ENtering

(graph would start low (bottom) and goes high (top)

How are electrons and energy related?

Explain oxidation and reduction to me.

Electrons and Energy related through their movement and transfer in various process

Oxidation: Lost of electrons

Reduction: Gain of Electrons

Why are reactions coupled in life?

they enable the conversion of energy from one form to another

- the energy to power endergonic reaction (less favorable) come from exergonic reactions (more favorable)

What type of molecule is ATP?

Would you be able to recognize ATP's structure?

What is one of the primary roles of ATP in the cell?

ATP: Nucleic acid

ATP is recognized by its structure of consisting of an adenine base, ribose sugar and 3 phosphate group attached to the ribose.

Primary role: energy chemical reactions

Why are enzymes considered catalysts?

Sketch me a reaction series involving an enzyme. Be sure to label all components.

How are enzymes related to activation energy?

they lower the activation energy (speed up) of a chemical reaction

How can enzyme functions be decreased or increased?

by altering the factor of temperature, pH Levels, and substrate concentration