MIGRATION, IDENTITY AND SOVEREIGNTY

Rural-Urban migration in China

-Global shift in manufacturing from USA and Europe to many Asian countries began in the 70s and 80s, caused rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in China.

-In 1980, over 80% of Chinese people lived in rural areas, by 2012 just over 680 million people (51% of the population) was urban.

The Hukou System

1950s (After Chinese Communist revolution) the new communist gov. introduced restrictions on internal migration that were designed to keep people in rural areas (the hukou/ household registration system).

-Everyone is registered at an official residence = it’s very hard for migrant workers from rural areas to change their official residence to a new location.

-Those moving to cities from rural areas must be ‘registered’ and buy a permit (expensive). Some permits allow permanent migration, but normally only allowed to highly educated workers/ those who already had family in urban areas. W/o permit, workers earn less and their families have no entitlement to health/ education. 2/3 of urban migrants are therefore men, and women and children often remain in rural areas.

-China’s dependence manufacturing & service industries within its cities=hukou system too restrictive(barrier to urban integration+ puts strain on transport infrastructure during public holidays when urban migrants return to their families in rural areas).

The EU- Schengen Agreement

1995- Abolished many internal border controls across the EU+ allowed passport-free movement across most EU member states.

=Over 14 million EU citizens now live in another member state (2.8% of EU population).

Criticism: Easy access to cheap labour ( undercutting domestic workers and lowering wages)+ free movement of criminals and terrorists.

• Terrorist attacks such as Paris 2015 have prompted rethink about free movement ( 2016, 6 Schengen countries inc. Germany and France reintroduced internal border controls).

GLOBAL VARIATION: Japan

-Japan’s pop is falling, 27% aged over 65 + working age pop, expected to fall to 44 million by 2037 (half the size it was in 2007).

-Only 1.7% of Japan’s population is immigrant, while the IMF research shows that advanced economies typically average 5%. The UN suggests Japan needs more immigrants to replenish its pop.

GLOBAL VARIATION: Australia

For 4 decades, Australia’s immigration policy has been skill-based ( 70% of immigrants are accepted based on skills shortages).

-Australia’s immigrants each contribute on average 10% more per capita to GDP than non-immigrants.

Aus’ median age is 37 but migrants tend to be younger ( 88% under 40). Aus has an otherwise ageing pop, which migrants offset (this trend would otherwise place increasing pressure on the costs of medical and social care, as in Japan).

neo-liberalism

(Liberalisation= a belief in freer flows of people, capital and trade).

Neo-liberalisation includes:

-Trade liberalisation

-Open borders.

- freedom to invest anywhere or transfer capital, (deregulation of financial markets).

National identity?

Sovereignty?

-A sense of a nation as a cohesive whole, represented by distinctive trends, culture and language (common experiences, beliefs or values).

-The authority of a state to self-govern (supreme power of authority).

The controversy of immigration?

- Resentment in host pop. (perceived threat to national identity).

-Extreme political parties are now becoming increasingly significant in Europe (Golden Dawn in Greece and France’s National Front).

Reasoning for internal migration in the UK

-Deindustrialisation since 80s in Northern Britain has driven many workers South in search of work + growth of footloose industries in SE has encouraged this further.

Regeneration of large cities (eg/ Manchester, London) has led to in-migration of younger people for work, as well as the urban lifestyle. etc.

The social consequences of migration?

-High inward migration= rising house prices, overcrowded schools, strained healthcare provision+ falling local wages.

-Out migration=skills shortages + ageing pop.

Assimilation?

Ethnic?

Culture?

Ethnic segregation?

Apartheid?

-The gradual integration of an immigrant group into the lifestyle and culture of the host country, sometimes at the expense of their own distinctiveness.

-Social group identified by a distinctive culture, religion, language etc.

-The ideas, beliefs, customs, social behaviour of a group or society.

-The voluntary or enforced separation of people of different cultures or nationalities.

-The enforced segregation of people by skin colour or ethnicity. This policy was used in South Africa between 1948 and 1991.

Migration and political tension:

Japan

• decreasing working age population= falling demand for goods, lower taxation revenue for gov.

• For many countries, immigration would be the answer, but Japan has a deep-rooted cultural aversion to this solution

Iceland CASE STUDY

Iceland’s national characteristics result from its geographical location ( hundreds of km from its nearest neighbour, Greenland), dependence on the sea and isolation.

Independence was gained from Denmark in 1944, and Iceland’s laws and society fiercely protect its cultural heritage and national identity:

-All children’s names must come from an approved list, to preserve the language of Icelandic sagas.

-74% of Icelanders belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland.

-The Icelandic language has remained unchanged since 870 AD

Most of Iceland is completely empty and unsettled. Over half of the population of 336,000 live in or close to Reykjavik, the Capital. Iceland is thus, by modern standards, monocultural (those born overseas constitute only 8.9% of pop.)

Singapore CASE STUDY

-A city state at the tip of the Malaysian Peninsula. Had a pop. of 5.5 mill in ‘14, and was first est. in 1819, by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles as a British colonial trading post. Singapore’s subsequent growth was largely due to immigration (particularly China, also India and Malaysia). Raffles divided Singapore into distinct ethnic areas:

After brief periods of Japanese and Malaysian rule, Singapore became independent in 1965. Pop today ( around) 75% Chinese, 15% Malay, 10% Indian.

This small country possesses a vibrant mix of languages, culture, festivals and food. A Q of if national identity can develop within such a diverse pop? Singaporean Gov. has tried to generate a national identity largely based on Asian values, but many Singaporeans have contradicting ideals= problematic.

National Borders

Borders separate nations and are either natural, have emerged historically over time, or are the result of colonial history/ political intervention.

• NATURAL BORDERS: Physical features which once created natural obstacles, such as Rivers (Eg/ Niagara River between Canada and the USA), lakes ( Eg/ The border created by Lake Tanganyika between the DRC, Zambia, Tanzania and Burundi), or Mountains (Eg/ The Pyrenees between France and Spain).

COLONIAL HISTORY& POLITICAL INTERVENTION: eg/ 14 countries met at a conference in Berlin in 1884-5 to discuss and divide up the continent of Africa.

Rwanda - CASE STUDY

(Part 1: Pre-Independence)

pre Berlin conf: Unified region, home to the Tutsi, Hutu and Twa peoples. The Tutsi were in control of the area, but any problems were resolved by a council of elders that inc. both Tutsi and Hutu members.

Post conf.: Germany est. colonial rule over newly-created Rwanda, then Belgium took over after WW1 (German Defeat). The Belgians favoured the Tutsi minority (14% of the pop.) with privileges over the Hutu majority (85% of pop.)- and, in 1926 they even introduced ethnic identity cards that officially differentiated Hutus from Tutsi.

Rwanda - CASE STUDY

(Part 2:-Independence)

Independence 1962, but its gov. was contested and not seen as legitimate by all. The Hutus had rebelled against the Belgian and Tutsi elite, and thousands of Tutsi fled. = killing of Tutsis, Hutus given preferential jobs.Despite plans to introduce a multi-party gov., progress stalled during the early 1990s.

1994- Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi were both killed when their plane was shot down. That event led to the genocide of an estimated 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus.Hutu Gov fled to Zaire (now DRC). Later that year, the UN Security Council established an international tribunal to oversee the prosecution of suspects involved in the Rwandan genocide.

CONTESTED BORDERS: Ukraine and Crimea

The Crimean Peninsula stretches from Southern Ukraine into the Black Sea. It has a varied population- 60% ethnic Russians, 25% ethnic Ukrainians, 15% Muslim Tatars.

-Crimea was part of the Russian Empire until 1954, when it was transferred to Ukraine (both Ukraine and Russia were Soviet republics).

-Sevastopol has long been the base of the Russian Black sea Fleet. After 1991, Russia found itself with part of its navy based in the newly independent Ukraine. 2010- Ukraine agreed to extend Russia’s lease on Sevastopol until 2042 (in exchange for cheaper Russian gas).

2014-Ukraine’s pro-Russian pres. was driven from power by a new Western-facing gov. that favoured Ukrainian membership in the EU and NATO. Russian-backed forces seized control of Crimea, and its Russian-speaking majority voted to join Russia in a snap referendum that Ukraine and the West considered to be illegal. 850,000 Ukrainians fled Crimea as a result.

CONTESTED BORDER: Taiwan (vs China)

Taiwan has effectively been an independent state since 1950, but China still claims sovereignty over it and regards it as a rebel province that should be united with the mainland.

China insists that other nations shouldn’t have official formal relations with both China and Taiwan, so Taiwan has few formal ties with other countries. Despite diplomatic isolation, Taiwan is one of Asia’s economic success stories, and is a top producer of computer technology.

Tsai Ing-wen became Taiwan’s first female pres, in 2016. She recognises the importance of Taiwanese identity, but by pursuing its sovereignty and formal independence she risks antagonising China.

French Nationalism and its controversy:

Nationalism= based on people’s identification with a nation- in the belief that they share a common identity, language, history and customs that bind them together. They tend to promote their country and are prepared to defend it, even to extend its boundaries.

French revolution est. nationalism as a force-removed absolute power of French Monarchy + put power in the hands of ordinary citizens. A new national gov. made rules that applied to everyone equally, and a standardised form of French was taught across the whole country to replace local dialects . Loyalty+ new national identity emerged.

However, many saw French Nationalism as a threat. Bonaparte boosted French Patriotism, but his belief in expansionism also provoked anger across Europe= rising nationalism in countries like Russia and Austria.

Empires and their consequences

Nationalism grew beyond Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. An age of Imperialism and Colonialism led to most major European nations extending their overseas interests and colonies. Eventually, resistance to this colonisation built up.

North and South Vietnam

Vietnam was under French colonial rule as part of French Indochina. It was then divided into North and South after a nationalist movement and the civil war (USA concerned about spread of communism in SE Asia=Vietnam was divided into 2 -Vietnamese nationalists, supported by communist China (North) + South controlled by independent non-communist rule (supported by US troops).

Migration and colonial ties

1948: The British Nationality act = commonwealth citizens’ right to British Citizenship+legal settlement in UK

= CW countries such as Jamaica +India to filled urgent job vacancies (transport & newly founded NHS).

Changing ethnic composition and cultural heterogeneity:

Migrants from India +Pakistan followed those from Caribbean. Many Well-qualified (docs, nurses)+ less qual joined manufacturing industries.

Migrants from particular countries, or parts of countries, tend to settle in the same area, due to chain migration ( eg/ Sikh migration to Southall West London).

Increased international migration= Cultural mosaic + Uks relative homogeneity gave way to a more heterogenous mix of people.

Colonial Legacies

British, French, Portuguese and German place names, architecture and customs still survive in many African countries, and the former colonial language often remains as legacies of those times.

Modern World

Now digital languages dominate, and the Internet exists as the most recent example of neo-colonialism.

English is the dom. internet language + Africa remains disconnected to a large extent. Dom. of European Languages still exists in the virtual world.

New rules- New States

( The Washington Consensus )

the Washington Consensus- a belief that economic efficiency can only be achieved if regulations are removed.

Deregulation became a trend in the 70s and 80s, with state interference reduced or removed altogether. National govs used to regulate investment at home and abroad, but post-deregulation = capital can be transferred anywhere freely and cheaply.

=Globalisation

Several govs have expanded their lack of financial reg with low income taxes and corporation tax rates, designed to attract wealthy individuals and TNCs to register themselves there (tax havens).

The Cayman Islands

3 neighbouring Caribbean islands( pop 65k, 100 nationalities).

one of the world’s most successful financial centres (over 100,000 registered companies).

among world’s largest offshore financial centres,(they’re only permitted to work with businesses resident outside their territory). ‘14 the islands held US$1.5 trillion in assets. —0% personal income tax rate +low corporation taxes=attractive to individuals&companies seeking to pay low/ no tax.

The negatives of Tax avoidance

Major TNCs and wealthy expatriates (those who live in a country in which they’re not citizens) ‘rest their cash’ in tax havens. Controversy: Some argue that companies and individuals are avoiding paying taxes in the very countries that enabled them to earn their wealth in the first place.

Attitudes towards tax havens

Most govs and IGOs, inc World Bank, accept growth of tax havens. National govs seek investment from TNCs to generate employment and wealth+ they have the freedom to set their own tax rates . Many NGOs have raised objections and, in ‘15, the EU declared that the ability of TNCs to move revenues earned throughout the EU to low-tax member states like Ireland unfair.

Growing inequalities- Cayman islands .

Social tensions increased as incomers outnumber the domestic pop. + live different lives and change the identity of the islands.

Alternative pathways

Not all countries support the process of globalisation, In Latin America, 2010, several govs. moved away from open-market principles to the left, in order to pursue social justice.

Bolivia - CASE STUDY

-Once ref. to as an ‘economic basket case’, now amongst world’s fastest growing economies. President Evo Morales was elected in 06 to turn against neo-liberalism and embark on a programme to undo 20 years of privatisation and the influence of the IMF. Morales’ view was that privatisation had simply resulted in profits for TNCs, which had then leaked out of the country.

strategy depended on nationalising Bolivia’s oil and gas industries :

-Increased gas connections, electricity, and telecommunication . Improved healthcare, education enrolment, pensions and incomes. Reduced wealth inequalities and lower gov. debt.

The Formation of the United Nations

1919 (post WW1), The League of Nations est, (American initiative) in an attempt to ensure future global peace. It aimed to give a voice to independent nations, rather than powerful empires, and open up discussion about conflicts rather than indulge in secret diplomacy. Growth, but League was unable to challenge the expansionism of either imperialist Japan or Hitler’s Germany in the 1930s, =relative insignificance until the runup to WW2.

Roosevelt intro. the term ‘United Nations’ WW2 (26 allies agreed to work against the Axis powers). UN’s aims, structures and roles were agreed by the USA, UK, USSR and China in 1944. As allies, they agreed to est. an international organisation that would (similarly but more effectively than the league of nations) aim to maintain global peace and security after WW2. Oct 1945= became the world’s 1st true IGO

The role of the UN (5)

-Maintaining international peace and security

-Promoting sustainable development

-Protecting human rights.

-Upholding international law

-Delivering humanitarian aid.

The UN: Personal influences and national disputes

Un’s role in global governance is influenced by the vision of the UN Secretary General.

-’74 Sec gen Kurt Waldheim placed hunger on the UN agenda.

-’06 Sec gen Ban Ki-Moon made climate change a UN priority.

, national disputes can spill over into UN policy (eg/ Syrian Conflict raised ideological differences between the geopolitical visions of 2 members of the security council).- Russia supporting President Assad, USA backing rebel groups=challenges the UN’s key role as peacekeeper.

Use of sanctions:

Defending human rights is a central pillar of the UN- sometimes involving the use of economic/ direct military sanction including:

-Arms embargo

-Trade embargos

-Restrictions on loans

-Freezing assets

-Travel restrictions.

Use of sanctions:

Iran and Bosnia

Iran -economic sanctions:

-A suspicion that Iran was attempting to build nuclear weapons led to the imposition of economic sanctions and financial restrictions by the UN. At the time, Iran was the world’s 4th largest oil exporting country, and influenced global oil prices through OPEC/ Although the UN was shown as willing to act, Iran’s GDP fall by just 5%.

Bosnia- Direct Military involvement:

-. 1993, the UN was provoked into action following the allegations of ethnic cleansing by Bosnian Serbs against Bosnian Muslims. To protect Bosnian Muslims, the Un designated a safe zone in Srebrenica, a small town in NE Bosnia, protected by a small force of Dutch UN peacekeepers. However, the town was put under siege by Bosnian Serb forces

- Supplies of food ran low, and many Muslims died of Starvation. In 1995, Bosnian Serb forces captured Srebrenica, massacring 8000 Muslim men and boys, and deporting 23,000 women and children, many of whom suffered rape. Dutch peacekeepers were hopelessly outnumbered; several were taken hostage by Bosnian Serbs and threatened with execution if the Dutch interfered.

UN Sec Gen, Kofi Annan, described the massacre as a tragedy that would haunt the UN forever.

Taking Unilateral action

The USA

Unilateral action= where one country, or a group of countries, act against another without formal UN approval. This can have deep impacts on geopolitical relations and global stability. An extreme example occurred after 9/11 attack in 2001. As part of the ‘war on terror’, a coalition of forces led by the USA (inc. UK, Poland and Aus)invaded Iraq in 03 and deposed Saddam Hussain’s gov. The UN initially supported the invasion, based on evidence of the existence of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, which was subsequently proved wrong. In 04, Kofi Annan declared the invasion in contravention of the UN charter.

Unilateral action against Russia

‘14 Crimea = the Eu, USA, Aus, Canada and Norway all imposed sanctions on 23 leading Russian politicians- their overseas financial assets were frozen, and they were also prevented from travelling to those 5 areas. The USA also led moves towards sectoral sanctions (targeting key areas of the Russian economy , such as energy, banking and defense).

UN general assembly met in ‘14 but not all UN members agreed upon further action( Russia used its veto). EU member states were reluctant to go too far (dependency on Russian oil and gas ).

wealth left Russia as Russian Investors sought secure overseas banks, currency was devalued +international credit rating reduced. Russia retaliated by banning imported foods from the EU and USA + also became less dependent on oil and gas exports (diversifying their economy).

International financial organisations

The World Bank and the IMF’s philosophy is based on the Washington Consensus, which is an ideology about the ‘Western way’ of organising capitalism. With their headquarters both in Washington, and the USA as their largest financial contributor, America remains firmly in the driving seat of global finance.

The impacts of the IMF and World Bank

They promote neo-liberalism as an ideology to deliver economic growth and, arguably, to protect the hegemony of the USA. Their objectives, broadly are:

• In the 1950s, to support any post-war reconstruction among developed countries.

• In the 70s and 80s to loan money for large development projects in developing countries.

The IMF and World Bank said that helping countries in difficulty would only occur if they agreed to conditions known as Structural Adjustment.

Structural Adjustment

In the 80s and 90s, the IMF reorganised many country’s loans to more affordable levels. To qualify,countries had to agree to Structural Readjustment Programmes (SAPs). + other conditions in order to qualify, inc:

opening up domestic markets,reducing the role of the gov, Removing restrictions on capital, reducing gov. spending, devaluing the currency.

Critics argue that these conditions force countries to sacrifice their economic sovereignty as they liberalised their economies- becoming ‘trans-nationalised’ as TNCs took over privatised services, and increasing their dependency on trade.

The Highly indebted Poor countries initiative

1996 ‘HIPC introduced: Aimed to reduce national debts by partially writing them off- in return for SAPs. The HIPC initiative affected 36 of the world’s least developed countries with the greatest debts.

2000,:all debts owed to the World Bank and IMF by 18 HIPC cancelled- decision worth US$40 billion. Conditions:

• Each country had to show good financial management and a lack of corruption.

• The national govs had to spend the savings on poverty reduction, education and healthcare programmes.

Debt: Uganda

1992: Debts totalled US$1.9 billion , but 2000 written off

= Gov.spending rose, with 40% more spent on education and 70% more on healthcare.

-Free primary schooling introduced (before debt relief, school enrollment rate was 62%, by 2015 it was 93%).

Global and regional trade

WTO members accounted for 96% of global trade in 2015 + 97% of global GDP=access to the world marketplace, and a route to economic development through trade.

Regional trading blocs have also emerged= no cross-border taxation and free movement of goods, services and people - known as ‘single markets’.

Link between trading blocs and political union

Centripetal forces, such as the harmonisation of economic policies and even a common currency, draw member states together.

Sharing laws and ideology takes time and some members may not want union. Some splintering might also be inevitable, as nationalist forces create centrifugal forces that drive organisations or countries apart.

Managing threats to the biosphere: Wetland protection

urbanisation & econ. develop. threaten wetlands (diverse +productive ecosystems)

UN Environment programme (UNEP) promotes sustainable development +manage the Earth’s biosphere& atmosphere. ‘15 UNEP’s leaders committed to stopping rapid wetland loss

=1971, Ramsar Convention (international treaty). Globally, over 2200 Ramsar sites are now managed by national govs, international NGOs and local bodies like Natural England. Although successful elsewhere in the world, wetland decline in England is prevalent.

Managing threats to the atmosphere- The Montreal Protocol.

The build up of ozone depleting substances (ODCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform- in the atmosphere increases the amnt of harmful UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface from the sun. This UV radiation damages human health, ecosystems, bio-geo chemical cycles + air quality. CFCs have already damaged the ozone layer sufficiently to cause the large ‘hole’ over Antarctica.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone layer was signed in 1987. It was a landmark agreement, which stipulated that both production and consumption of ODs must be phased out by 2000. By 2009, it was the 1st global treaty to reach 197 signatories and to have achieved global ratification. By 2010, virtually all countries had phased out ODs.

Why was the Montreal Protocol so Successful?

• definable cause-and-effect relationship.

• little disputing of the evidence.

• Funding assistance given to developing nations.

• Substitutes for CFCs already available.

• Global risks considered immediate and widespread

=Reduced GG emissions + The global ozone layer should return to pre 1980 levels by 2050, and over Antarctica by 2070.

Action by IGOs to protect the environment

-UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): guidelines for managing marine resources, creating EEZs.

-the Water Convention: sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources by promoting cooperation between countries.

Sport and Nationalism

Nationalism= A patriotic feeling. International sporting events, Olympics, can nurture national pride, unity and loyalty-even if only briefly + the effect is strongest for the host country.

Education and values

Identifying and believing in what your nation stands for often encourages loyalty and a sense of belonging. Since 2014, English schools have been legally required to promote British values as part of student’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. ‘Fundamental British values’ comprise beliefs in:

-Democracy, The rule of Law, Individual Liberty and mutual respect & tolerance.

Politics and values

Politicians usually combine national duty with a political agenda.

2005- Protests across China and South Korea in response to Japanese gov’s decision to approve school textbooks promoting nationalist views of Japan’s history. The writers were accused of ignoring events such as the 1937 Nanking Massacre, and also of omitting details about the Japanese occupation of Korea and China in the 1930s and 40s. Japan’s prime minister claimed that their aim was to ‘project a country with a proud history’.

Opening and Closing ceremonies role in expressing national identity?

The opening and closing ceremonies of major sporting events, such as the Olympics, are more than just extravagant displays of technology, drama and celebration. They have become opportunities to showcase the host nation’s perceived national identities.

eg/ London 2012 Olympics.

Globalisation and Identity

Globalisation, with fewer restrictions on movement, trade, investment and global media, can alter people’s views, loyalties and national identities.

• Concepts such as tolerance, freedom, respect and fairness are shared.

London ( multi nationalism)

In 2016 Sadiq Khan = London’s third Mayor, first from an ethnic minority group. London’s pop. at the time was 8.6 million +ONS data show that 3.1 million of those residents were born overseas, and that 44% of London’s pop. was made up of black and other ethnic minorities. The wide ethnic mix makes the identity of both London and the rest of the UK complex.

Challenges to national identity: Made in Britain

difficult to recognise goods ‘Made in Britain’, they might be:

-Made by British Companies under foreign ownership.

-Consist of parts made abroad but assembled in the UK.

Global markets encourage mergers and takeovers, and companies achieve economies of scale and efficiency by merging, as well as eliminating a competitor. The UK gov. rarely intervenes in the sale of UK companies to foreign buyers, unless national security, financial stability or media plurality are at risk.-countries like France, Germany and the USA protect certain industries for strategic reasons (such as protecting jobs and skills).

Westernisation and cultural values

• Entertainment: the media we consume is increasingly provided by a small group of people ( 80% of the global music market is owned by 3 American companies).

  • Retailing: Global brands replace local businesses+ malls tend to look very similar.

Cultural Takeover:Disney

Disney owns 40 Spanish-speaking radio stations, plus foreign-language tv channels+dozens of international magazines. In China, Disney use leisure and film to expand their market. By 2015, they had also opened over 140 learning centres equipped with Disney Materials in China, teaching English to 150,000 children.

Disney promotes a distinctive view of the broader benefits of Western Capitalism. It targets the middle classes in China and India, many of whom see Western brands as symbols of economic success and social fluidity.

Property and land- Ownership and Identity

2013: UK Estate agents Knight Frank placed Russians top of the list of foreign buyers of London homes. Non-national investors are also buying into some of London’s most recognisable locations- Canary Wharf, the Shard, East Village etc.

In 1980, just 8% of the City of London was owned by non-national investors, in 2011 the proportion passed 50%.

Business Ownership and Identity

Some TNCs have actually altered way of life in some countries, and even altered national identities.

EG/ in the UK, the Indian TNC Tata owns the steel plant in Port Talbot, S Wales. It provided jobs to the area and maintains the historical Welsh association with heavy industry. Tata’s publicity claims they benefit Welsh prosperity, invest in schools, and support local health, safety and environmental policies. But in 2015, when cheap imported Chinese steel threatened Tata’s profits, Tata proposed closing the plant. = community functions are at risk from overreliance on TNCs, which could easily change tack.

Nationalism vs Globalisation

Rising nationalism , as well as calls for independence from regions within countries, has emerged alongside the growing disillusionment with globalisation.

Catalan : Demand for change

Catalonia= Spain’s wealthiest region, pop 7.5 million, producing 20% of Spain’s wealth. As a separate nation, its GDP would exceed that of Israel, and would be the world’s 34th largest economy.

-Since 1978, Catalonia has enjoyed considerable levels of self-governance= responsibility for education, healthcare, police, prisons and culture.

Many Catalans believe in a pluralistic (multi national) Spain with distinctive regions, languages and cultures. Catalonian people who identify themselves as ‘Catalans’ rather than ‘Spanish’ have strong views about independence.

Many Catalans believe that they contribute more than their fair share to the nation’s taxes.

The EU’s relation to Catalan

Many European businesses in Catalan + independence could mean the renegotiation of trade deals, as well as changes to tax, regulations and currency, which would create challenges for businesses.

Rising tensions in emerging nations

Nationalism often has cultural and historical roots, strengthened in places where globalisation has created tensions. The BRICs and other emerging nations have all seen their GDP grow significantly, but also grappling with the consequences of national divisions.

winners and losers of globalisation- equality in South Africa

Globalisation has allowed South Africa’s manufacturers to gain access to wider markets- exports have grown, as have imports of consumer goods. The gold mines near Johannesburg, wines of Western Cape, and tourism, have presented the country with economic opportunities and growth. However, the opening up of South Africa to global markets has also meant taking on SAPs and accepting high levels of FDI+ the in-migration of overseas businesses. Some South Africans have undoubtedly gained, but income inequalities between different groups in South Africa have increased, as have political tensions.

Failed states

Role of the state varies between countries, and national identity is not always as strong as in Catalonia.

eg/ ‘failed states’ =stark diffs between politically + economically powerful elites, foreign investment groups, and the wider population. A failed state = where the political or economic system has become so weak that the national gov. is no longer in control & cannot maintain security, law or order. In these countries, some of the following apply:

low life expectancy, undemocratic gov., social unrest, widespread poverty, human rights abuse, poor education, health and welfare. A small elite may wield political and economic power, and any sense of national identity may be weak.

Failed States: Syria

Civil war in Syria has contributed to its ‘failure’.

-Its raged since ‘11, claiming nearly 500,000 lives and displacing millions of Syrians to other countries as refugees. Ongoing conflict involves up to 1000 armed opposition groups, including Islamic Front, Jihadist groups and ISIS, & direct involvement of other countries.

Much of Syria’s ‘failure’ has been caused by nepotism &corruption. Economic liberalisation in Syria has occurred without the legal basis, rules, checks and balances by which a market economy usually functions.