Key Events and Themes in U.S. History (1848–1980)

Mexican-American War / Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

U.S. gained vast new lands, reigniting debate over the expansion of slavery into western territories.

California Gold Rush

Population boom led California to join as a free state—disrupting the balance between slave and free states.

Compromise of 1850 & Fugitive Slave Act

Admitted California free and enacted harsh fugitive slave laws—angered Northerners and intensified sectionalism.

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel exposed slavery's horrors—ignited Northern anti-slavery sentiment and Southern outrage.

Dred Scott Case

Supreme Court ruled enslaved people weren't citizens and Congress couldn't ban slavery in territories—invalidated compromises.

John Brown's Raid

Attempted to start a slave uprising—terrified the South and escalated fear of Northern aggression.

Lincoln's Election (1860)

South saw Lincoln's victory (with no Southern votes) as a threat to slavery—triggered secession.

Secession & Fort Sumter

Southern states left the Union—Civil War began when Confederates fired on Fort Sumter in 1861.

Emancipation Proclamation

Turned the Civil War into a fight to end slavery—freed enslaved people in Confederate areas.

Gettysburg & Grant's Tactics

Gettsyburg was a key turning point. Grant's 'total war' strategy wore down Southern resistance.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery nationwide—fulfilled the war's promise and reshaped American freedom.

Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th)

Promised freedom, citizenship, and voting rights for Black Americans—but enforcement was weak.

Black Codes

Laws in the South that restricted Black freedom and aimed to preserve a labor force—slavery in disguise.

Election of 1868 / Ulysses S. Grant

Grant won with strong Black support; tried to enforce Reconstruction before scandals undermined his presidency.

KKK / Enforcement Acts

White supremacist terrorism suppressed Black voting; federal laws tried to stop it, but faded in enforcement.

Jim Crow Laws

Segregation laws across the South institutionalized white supremacy and reversed Reconstruction gains.

Monopolies / Trusts

Massive corporations like Standard Oil dominated markets—centralizing wealth and power.

Economies of Scale

Big businesses lowered costs by producing more—small competitors and workers often suffered.

Carnegie, Rockefeller, JP Morgan

Industrial tycoons who dominated steel, oil, and finance—symbols of both success and inequality.

Scientific Management (Taylorism)

Factory efficiency method that made production faster but worsened conditions for workers.

Homestead Strike

Violent clash between steelworkers and Carnegie's company—showed limits of union power.

Tenements

Overcrowded, unsanitary urban housing for poor immigrants—symbol of industrial poverty.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Legalized segregation under 'separate but equal'—upheld Jim Crow laws.

Booker T. Washington & W.E.B. Du Bois

Washington urged vocational training; Du Bois demanded civil rights now—debate over Black strategy.

Ida B. Wells

Journalist who exposed lynchings and racism—led early anti-lynching campaign.

Late 1800s Immigration

Increased arrivals from Southern and Eastern Europe caused cultural change and sparked nativism.

Chinese Exclusion Act

First major U.S. law restricting immigration—targeted Chinese workers due to racism and labor fears.

Ellis Island

Main immigration station for Europeans—symbolized hope and harsh entry standards.

Manifest Destiny → Imperialism

Belief in U.S. destiny expanded into overseas empire—used to justify war and colonization.

Yellow Journalism

Sensationalist media stirred emotions and helped provoke the Spanish-American War.

Spanish-American War (1898)

U.S. defeated Spain and gained overseas territories—marked the start of American imperialism.

Philippine-American War

Filipinos resisted U.S. rule; brutal suppression contradicted American democratic ideals.

Big Stick Policy & Panama Canal

Roosevelt used military pressure to build the canal—asserted U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere.

Muckrakers (Sinclair, Riis)

Investigative journalists exposed injustice—spurred reform in industry and urban poverty.

TR's Progressive Reforms

Roosevelt used federal power to regulate food safety, trusts, and conserve nature—early modern presidency.

Causes of U.S. Entry into WWI

Submarine attacks, the Zimmermann Telegram, and Allied ties pulled U.S. into global conflict.

Committee on Public Information

Government propaganda agency during WWI—promoted nationalism and suppressed dissent.

Espionage & Sedition Acts

Restricted anti-war speech—showed how civil liberties shrink in wartime.

Schenck v. U.S. (1919)

Upheld limits on free speech in wartime if it posed a 'clear and present danger.'

1920s Immigration Restrictions

Set quotas limiting immigrants from 'undesirable' regions—revealed deep nativism.

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote in 1920—culmination of decades of activism.

Great Migration

Mass migration of Black Americans north for jobs—reshaped cities and politics.

Mass Culture (Radio, Movies, Cars)

Created shared national identity and consumerism during the 1920s.

'Return to Normalcy'

Presidents Harding and Coolidge cut taxes, raised tariffs, and deregulated—economic instability followed.

Stock Market Crash / Doom Loop

The 1929 crash triggered bank failures, unemployment, and deepened inequality.

FDR & Fireside Chats

Roosevelt reassured the public and restored trust during the Depression through direct radio messages.

New Deal Banking & Jobs (FDIC, WPA)

Government stabilized banks and created massive job programs—shifted role of government in economy.

TVA, Social Security, FLSA

Long-term reforms that brought electricity, retirement income, and labor protections to Americans.

WWII Neutrality → Pearl Harbor

U.S. tried to stay out of WWII, but Japan's attack led to full entry into the war.

Homefront Economy

War bonds, rationing, and industry booms ended the Depression and mobilized society.

Japanese Internment & Korematsu

Over 100,000 Japanese Americans were imprisoned—upheld by the Supreme Court in Korematsu v. U.S.

Women & Minorities in WWII

Filled war jobs and served in the military—led to new demands for civil rights.

GI Bill

Gave returning veterans education and home loans—expanded the middle class, mostly for white men.

Holocaust & U.S. Response

U.S. response was limited—revealed reluctance to fully confront genocide during the war.

Truman Doctrine

Promised to contain communism globally—began U.S. Cold War strategy.

Brown v. Board of Education

Overturned school segregation—declared 'separate but equal' unconstitutional.

Emmett Till (1955)

Brutal murder of Black teenager shocked the nation—catalyst for Civil Rights Movement.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks' arrest sparked yearlong boycott—first major victory for nonviolent protest.

Sit-ins & Freedom Rides

Student-led protests exposed Southern segregation—forced federal action.

March on Washington

Massive demonstration for jobs and freedom—MLK delivered "I Have a Dream."

LBJ's Great Society

Expanded government to fight poverty and inequality—Medicare, Medicaid, education funding.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination in public spaces and jobs—huge step toward racial equality.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Outlawed literacy tests—dramatically increased Black voter turnout.

Immigration Act of 1965

Ended racist quotas—opened doors to immigrants from around the world.

The New Left / Counterculture

Young people and activists challenged war, sexism, racism, and consumer culture.

Vietnam War & Gulf of Tonkin

LBJ expanded war powers—led to quagmire and widespread protest.

TV Coverage of Vietnam

Graphic war footage eroded public support—created a "credibility gap."

The New Right

Conservatives pushed back against liberal policies—called for lower taxes and traditional values.

Reagan Revolution

Ronald Reagan cut taxes, shrank government, and reignited Cold War tensions—reshaped U.S. politics.

Declaration of Independence

Responded to Britain's violation of self-governance by justifying revolution with Enlightenment ideas like natural rights and social contract theory.

Articles of Confederation

Reflected Americans' fear of tyranny by creating a deliberately weak federal government that couldn't tax or regulate trade effectively.

Shay's Rebellion

A farmer uprising that exposed the inability of the Articles government to maintain order—highlighted the need for a stronger federal system.

Constitutional Convention

Delegates replaced the Articles with a new Constitution, balancing effective governance with protection against tyranny.

3/5 Compromise

Counted enslaved individuals as 3/5 of a person for representation—exposed deep divisions over slavery.

Great Compromise

Created a bicameral Congress to satisfy both large and small states—House by population, Senate equally.

Three Branches of Government

Divided power among Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Checks and Balances

Each branch had powers to limit the others—veto, override, impeachment—to ensure no one dominated.

Federalism

Divided power between federal and state governments, maintaining unity while allowing local control.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments protecting individual liberties—added to gain support for the Constitution.

Louisiana Purchase

Doubled U.S. territory and intensified debates over slavery in new lands.

Missouri Compromise

Tried to keep political balance between free and slave states; revealed sectional tensions.

Indian Removal Act / Trail of Tears

Removed Native peoples to make way for white settlers—enabled westward expansion.

Cotton Gin & Plantation Expansion

Made cotton highly profitable, increasing Southern commitment to slavery.

Abolition & Resistance

Nat Turner, Douglass, and Garrison challenged slavery—exposed growing national divide.

Transportation & Communication Innovations

Connected North and West economically—further separated them from the South.

Factory Technology Innovations

Helped industrialize the North—urban growth and wage labor intensified.

Seneca Falls Convention

Early women's rights convention demanding equality—linked to reform energy of the era.

Temperance Movement

Social reform against alcohol—symbolized moral urgency during industrial change.

New Immigration Patterns

Irish and Germans changed Northern demographics—faced harsh discrimination.

Know-Nothing Party

Nativist reaction against immigration—feared foreign and Catholic influence.