Human Development Test 2

Social Constructivism (Learning Theory)

• Lev Vygotsky

• A theory of human learning in light of a learners social situation/community.

• The optimal learning environment is one where a dynamic interaction between indicators, learners, and tasks provides an opportunity for learners to create their own truth due to the interaction with others.

• Emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what is happening in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Argues that students can, with help from adults or peers who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own.

• It is the gap between a learner’s current or actual development level and the learner’s emerging or potential level of development.

• Emphasis falls on learners actively constructing knowledge and meaning through participating in activities and challenges, with the added emphasis on the interaction between learners and facilitators in order to arrive at a higher level of truth

Stage 1 -Zone of Proximal Development

Where performance is assisted by more capable others • Rely on adults and more capable peers for outside regulation of task performance. • Responsibilities divided between the adult and child

Stage 2 -Zone of Proximal Development

• Where performance is assisted by the self

• Child carries out a task without assistance from others.

• New skill not fully developed or automatized.

• Responsibility completely taken over by the child

Stage 3 -Zone of Proximal Development

• Where performance is developed, automatized, and “fossilized”

• Developmental stage for that task.

• Task execution is smooth and integrated (internalized and Automatized”

• Assistance from adult is no longer needed

Stage 4 -Zone of Proximal Development

• Where de-automatization of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD

• Lifelong learning of an individual is made up of these same regulated ZPD sequences

  • Stage 1 (other-assistance)

  • Stage 2 (self-assistance)

  • Stage 3 (automation)

  • Stage 4 (back to the beginning for new tasks).

Modeling Theory

• By Albert Bandura

• Believed that children do not inherently possess violent traits.

• Argued that individuals, especially children learn aggressive responses from observing others (personality or through media and environment)

• Children saw reinforcement through aggressive actions.

  • Ex: Bobo the doll

Observational Learning

• By Albert Bandura

• Modelling is not merely a process of behavioural mimicry, but through modelling, people learn the value of particular behaviours for goal achievement or outcomes.

• Argued that some of the traditional principles of learning, such as the laws of reinforcement and punishment,t are more relevant to performance than acquisition.

• Learning can occur outside the boundaries of pleasure and pain

Bobo the Doll Experiment

A famous psychological study by Albert Bandura that demonstrated the principles of observational learning and modeling theory, where children observed aggression towards a doll and subsequently imitated that behavior.

Banduras Self-Efficacy

• Determined resilience and confidence = success

• Self-efficacy develops through experience and is NOT fixed

• People with low self-efficacy avoid difficult tasks and doubt abilities

• Learning through success and failure is the most powerful source of self-efficacy

• Refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or tasks

• Influences motivation, behavior, and performance

Self-efficacy vs. Self-esteem

Self-efficacy refers to believing in preforming tasks

Self-esteem refers to overall sense of worth

Vicarious Experiences

Learning by watching

Verbal Persuasion

Encouragement from others

Harry Harlow

• Studied Rhesus monkeys in the 1950s

• The monkeys reared with a terrycloth and wire-mesh set of “surrogate mothers”

• Even though the wire-mesh mother held the bottle and infants had to climb on it to be fed, whenever frightened, the monkey would turn to the cloth mother for security and confidence.

• Toddlers in North America, in particular, establish close connections to warm, soft and cuddly objects (i.e. teddy bears) to comfort them when their parents cannot be present

Ethological Theory of Attachment - Bowlby

• Recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival.

• Is the strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress. By the second half of the first year, infants have become attached to familiar people who have responded to their needs.

• Bowlby believed the human infant is endowed with behaviours that keep the parent nearby to protect them from danger and provide

Pre Attachment Phase- Bowlby

(Birth to 6 weeks) Built in signals from grasping, smiling, crying and gazing etc help bring the newborn into close contact with other humans who comfort them

Attachment in the Making - Bowlby

(6 weeks to 8 months) Infant responds differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. As infants learn that their own actions affect the behavior of those around them, a sense of trust is built up.

Clear Cut Attachment - Bowlby

(8 months to 2 years) Attachment to their primary caregiver is very evident. Separation Anxiety becomes apparent. Temperament begins to develop. Child has preferences

Reciprocal Attachment

(18 months to beyond 2 years) By end of the 2ndyear onward the child sees rapid growth in representation and language that permits the child to understand some of the factors that influence the parent’s coming and going to predict her return. Children start to negotiate with the caregiver, using requests and persuasion to alter her goals.

Attachment - Ainsworth

• What do infants and young children do to feel safe and how does this impact their development?

• M. Ainsworth and her colleagues discovered that securely attached infants and toddlers use the parent as a secure base from which to explore an unfamiliar experience (i.e. a new playroom).

Ainsworth Attachment Experiment

• Her experiments showed that the key to attachment and healthy development during these early years is whether there is a secure emotional connection (attachment) to the primary caregiver.

• In her experiments, when the child in a playroom saw their primary caregiver leave the room and a warm stranger replaced them, insecure children panicked. Secure children did not (as much) and continued to explore and play, or wait for the caregivers return

Secure Attachment - Ainsworth

The infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated they may cry but always stop upon the parents return. 65% of North American children show this pattern.

Anxious/Avoidant Attachment - Ainsworth

The infant seems unresponsive to the parent when they are present. When the parent leaves, they are usually not distressed and they react to the stranger in much the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, often fail to cling. 20% of North American children show this pattern

Resistant Attachment - Ainsworth

Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When she leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return they display angry, resistant behavior, sometimes hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily

Cultural Applications to Attachment Theory

• Japanese children rarely show avoidant attachment. An unusually high number are resistantly attached.

• This result may not represent true insecurity. Japanese mothers rarely leave their babies in others’ care, so the “Strange situation” probably creates greater stress for them than for infants who frequently experience maternal separations.

• Japanese parents also view the infant attention seeking that is part of resistant attachment as a normal indicator of infant dependency.

• Despite such cultural variations, the secure pattern is still the most common attachment in all societies studied

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

• The stages of development are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning.

• Inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis of ethical behaviour, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages (each more effective than the last).

• Interested in how people will justify their actions.

• Stages are broken into three levels:

  • Pre-conventional •

  • Conventional •

  • Post-conventional

Kohlburg Stage 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY (AGES 4 TO 10)

• Emphasis in this level is on external control. The standards are those of others, and they are observed either to avoid punishment or to reap rewards

  • Stage 1:Punishment and obedience orientation.

  • Stage 2: Instrumental purpose and exchange. The “I’ll scratch your back and you scratch mine” scenario. Children at this stage will conform to rules out of self-interest and consideration for what others can do for them.

Kohlburg Stage 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (AGES 10 TO 13)

• Children now want to please other people. They still observe the standards of others, but they have internalized these standards to some extent. Now they want to be considered “good” by those persons whose opinions count. They are now able to take the roles of authority figures well enough to decide whether some action is “good” by their standards.

  • Stage 3: Maintaining mutual relations, approval of others, and the golden rule. The “Am I a good girl?” and “Am I a good boy?” Children want to please and help others, can judge the intentions of others, and develop their own ideas of what a good persona is.

  • Stage 4: Social system and conscience. The “What if everybody did it?” People are concerned with doing their duty, showing respect for higher authority, and maintaining the social order

Kholburg Stage 3: POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY (AGE 13, OR NOT UNTIL YOUNG ADULTHOOD, OR NEVER)

• This level marks the attainment of true morality. For the first time, the person acknowledges the possibility of conflict between two socially accepted standards and tries to decide between them. The control of conduct is now internal, both in standards observed and in the reasoning about right and wrong. Stages 5 and 6 may be alternative types of the highest level of reasoning.

  • Stage 5: Morality of contract, of individual rights, and of democratically accepted law. People think in rational terms, valuing the will of the majority and the welfare of society as a whole. They generally see that these values are best supported by adherence to the law. While they recognize that there are times when there is a conflict between human need and the law, they believe that it will be better for society in the long run if they obey the law.

  • Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles. People do what they as individuals think is right, regardless of legal restrictions or the opinions of others. They act in accordance with internalized self-chosen standards, knowing that they would condemn themselves if they did not.

Carol Gilligan Moral Development Stages

• Proposes an alternative view of moral development considers gender variances.

• She took exception to Kohlberg’s theory because his studies only included males.

• Girls more concerned with caring, relationships, and making connections vs. boys more concerned with justice.

• The morality of care

Gilligan Ethic of Care Stage 1: Preconventional

• Goal is individual survival

• Selfishness

Gilligan Ethic of Care Stage 2: Conventional

• Self Sacrifice is goodness

• Responsibility to others

Gilligan Ethic of Care Stage 3: Post-conventional

• Principle of nonviolence: do not hurt others or self

• Truth of being a good person too

Formal Operations - Piaget

• Piaget’s 4th stage (Adolescence)

• Brings connection to the final form

• A person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgements

• Capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning

Hypothetic Deductive Reasoning

The capacity to think of all possible factors that might affect the outcome of a problem and test them in an orderly fashion

Erikson Stage 1: Birth to 18 Months | Trust vs. Mistrust

• Oral Sensory Stage – major emphasis on the mother’s positive and loving care for the child, with an emphasis on visual contact and touch.

• Success = learning to trust

• Fail = frustration/worthlessness/mistrust

• Primary caregiver most influential here.

Erikson Stage 2 (Early Childhood): 18 Months to Three Years | Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

• Learn to master skills (walk, talk, feed, fine motor development, toilet training.)

• Helps to build self-esteem and autonomy.

• “Terrible Twos” – No

• Vulnerable stage – shame (i.e. during toilet training can cause doubt about capabilities and result in low self-esteem.)

• Most significant relationship are with parents. (Balance)

Erikson Stage 4 (School Age): Six to 12 Years Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority

• Develop a sense of industry because we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous skills and knowledge.

• Social stage of development.

• Unresolved feelings of inadequacy or inferiority among peers = serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem.

• Important question at this stage: “Am I good at what I do?”

Erikson Stage 5 (Adolescence): 12 to 18 Years | Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Young adults are primarily concerned with how they look to others.

• Try to establish identity as an individual separate from family.

• Will “try on” different identities in order to discover who they are.

• Success = Identity; Failure = Role Confusion

• Most significant relationship = peer groups.

Erik Eriksons Psychosocial Theory Basis

• Describes the physical, emotional, and psychological stages of development

• At each stage of human development, Erikson believed that an individual will encounter a psychosocial crisis.

• The successful/unsuccessful resolution of each crisis allows someone to analyze/predict future behaviour.

• 8 Stages of Development

Epistemic Cognition - Piaget

• Post-formal Thought: cognitive development beyond Piaget’s formal operations, which suggests that personal effort and social experiences spark increasingly rational, flexible and practical ways of thinking that accept uncertainties and vary in situations

• William Perry coined the term Epistemic Cognition, which refers to our reflections on how we arrived at facts, beliefs and ideas

• He wondered why young adults respond in different ways to the diversity of ideas they encounter in college

• Interviewed Harvard University students at the end of each of their four years in University – “What stood out?”

Abuse

Is hurtful, frightening behavior that one person uses to control another dependent upon them in some way

Family Violence

Arises from poverty, disempowerment and breakdown of culture and men’s / women’s roles

Types Family Violence

1. Physical abuse

2. Sexual abuse

3. Verbal abuse

4. Psychological/emotional abuse

5. Spiritual or cultural abuse

6. Social abuse

7. Economic abuse

Physical Abuse (Forms of)

• Assaulting a person, pet or property by punching, choking, burning, shaking, hair pulling etc.

• Using weapons e.g. sticks, belts, stones

• Destroying possessions

• Dangerous driving

• Locking a person out of the house

• Locking a person up

• Overworking them

• Stopping a person from getting enough sleep

Verbal Abuse (Forms of)

• Using insults and put-down words all the time in private or in public

• Threats to harm or kill a person

• Threats to destroy property or possessions

• Verbal abuse is related to emotional abuse

Psychological/Emotional Abuse (Forms of)

• Undermining a person’s confidence and making them feel they are the problem in the relationship by:

  • Spending time with everyone but the victim

    • Withdrawing interest in the victim

  • Comparing them to others e.g.: ‘It would be OK if you were like Rita

Spiritual/Cultural Abuse (Forms of)

• Denying someone’s human, cultural or spiritual needs by:

  • Denying a person access to cultural land or family, cultural or spiritual ceremonies or rites

  • Forcing their own religious practices on others

  • Denying a person their cultural heritage

Social Abuse (Forms of)

• Removing the victim’s decision making roles using isolation and social control to stop a person:

  • Visiting friends or family

  • Attending social events

  • Making phone calls or talking to others

  • Talking their own language

  • Seeing a doctor without them being there

Economical Abuse (Forms of)

• Taking control over other people’s money by:

• Stopping others from having their own bank account or money

• Controlling how family spends their money

• Threatening/taking money off family by force

Child Abuse, Neglect, and Family Violence

• Consistent loving care is a necessity in developing to one’s full potential. However, child abuse, neglect and family violence create disadvantages that can last a lifetime.

• This is because domestic abuse and misuse of power violate a child’s basic sense of trust (in the very person responsible for their care.

Child Abuse

Is a deliberate act of harming a child where the child experiences physical, emotional, or sexual harm.

Child Neglect

Is a failure to meet a child’s physical and emotional needs

Epistemic Cognition

• Epistemic refers to experience

• In trying to determine the truth, individuals engaged in dualistic thinking

  • Dividing information, values, and authority into right and wrong, good and bad, we and they eg.

Relativistic Thinking

• Viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought

• Give up on the possibility of absolute truth in favor of multiple truths and contextual relevance

• Later move towards synthesizing ideas