Unit 2 - The quest for civil rights, 1917-80

what was the 13th amendment?

abolished slavery in the united states

ratified in 1865

what was the 14th amendment?

made all people born or naturalised in the united states US citizens - including those who had been slaves

ratified in 1868

what was the 15th amendment?

declared all US citizens had the same voting rights

ratified in 1970

what factors affected life in the south in 1917-55?

jim crow laws

lynching and the KKK

federal government intervention

how did jim crow laws affect life in the south?

by 1927, the south had a large number of laws that segregated every aspect of life - known as the ‘permanent system’ or ‘final settlement’

states introduced segregation more subtly - voters had to pass a literacy qualification and black people were given harder passages, in many states voters had to be home owners and most black people were not

many polling stations were surrounded by whites waiting to beat up any black people who turned up to vote

by 1917, the number of black americans registered to vote dropped considerably - in louisiana it fell from 130,000 in 1896 to just over 1,000 in 1904

how did lynching and the KKK affect life in the south?

from 1915-30, 65 white men and 579 black men were lynched - mostly in the south

southern lynching were often advertised beforehand

In 1955, 14 year old emmett till, visiting the south from chicago, was lynched for talking to a white woman - the lynching caused shock, even in the south

KKK - white supremacist group revived in 1915, by 1925 they had 8 million members included members such as politicians and police in the south, wore robes and hoods to protect their identities but they all know who everyone was, women members raised children as white supremacists and created an extreme anti-black environment

how did federal government intervention affect life in the south?

as black people became less able to vote, they lost political power

the federal government stopped equality - 1896 plessy v ferguson made segregation legal as long as facilities were equal, ‘separate but equal’

wilson was pro-segregation

harding spoke out about lynching and was in favour of civil rights

both harding and coolidge followed a laissez faire policy - they expressed opinions to influence behaviour but would not enforce it with legislation

the federal government moved away from civil rights and focused on fixing the economy after the great depression hit america

what is the dred scott case (1857)?

dred scott was a slave who had lived in both slave and free territories - went to court to sue for freedom

missouri state court ruled that he should be free, but the decision was appealed and revoked

supreme court ruled that slaves were property and did not have any rights (7-2) - based on three decisions:

1) african americans were not american citizens

2) living in a free state did not make a slave free

3) banning slavery in the louisiana purchase was unconstitutional to the missouri compromise

what was the great migration?

mass migration of black people from the south to the north - first wave was 1910-1940, second wave was 1940-1970

in 1910, 90% of black americans lived in the south - in 1940, this dropped to 77%, and by 1970, it was 52%

In the south black americans were paid $0.75 per day, compared to $5 in the north

however, life was still a struggle when black americans moved to the north - poverty was widespread and segregation was still in place

the mass migration made white southerners nervous - the economic infrastructure of the south depended on the labour of black people and they were worried that too many were leaving

how did the change of black voting style affect FDR’s election?

In the 1920s black votes shifted from mainly republican (the party that abolished slavery) to democrat (the party promising a new deal) - their votes were a significant part of the FDR landslide victory

how did the new deal affect black americans?

FDR approved some black advisors, but he needed the support of those against civil rights so did little to advance civil rights

FDR’s new deal measures were ‘colourblind’ - black people were often moved off of projects to make room for whites, which was a huge feature of agricultural reforms

social security didn’t apply to farm or domestic workers - most of these workers were black

black officials protested - managed to persuade the national recovery administration to make the minimum wage for blacks and whites the same

a third of the low-income housing funded by the new deal had black tenants as many of the poor people eligible for it were black

why were the protests against the new deal?

communists worked closely with black civil rights movements such as the NAACP - they demanded that relief funds should be allocated equally to black and white people, and helped to uncover a conspiracy against nine black men accused of raping two white girls

church organisations sold food and supplied to black people for cheaper prices - they organised boycotts of stores in black districts that didn’t employ black people

resettlement administration, set up by executive order 7027 in 1935 - gave low income families loans and new housing, gave black farmers who had lost their homes loans, but only 3,400 out of over 200,000 farmers

how did WW2 affect black americans?

executive order 8802 - banned racial discrimination in the army and defence factories, overseen by a fair employment practices committee, there were lots of complaints and this wasn’t properly implemented

in 1942, 3% of defence workers were black - in 1944, this had risen to 8%

many black americans trained for military leadership - black officers only commanded black regiments as the military was still segregated

a new and more militant organisation was established in 1942 - CORE

NAACP membership rose by 400,000 from 1940-45

after WW2, many black veterans were able to use the GI bill to go to college or trade schools - however, they were then excluded from trade unions and mainly assigned low-level jobs

how did truman affect civil rights?

was openly racist in his youth but developed a sense of responsibility towards black americans

in 1954, he tried to push ati-lynching, anti-segregation and fair employment bills through congress but failed

set up the president’s committee in in 1946 - called for equal opportunities in work and housing and urged strong federal support for civil rights

supported civil rights but was more focussed on the cold war and fighting communism

issued executive orders in 1948 desegregating the military and all work done by businesses for the government

what was the NAACP?

national association for the advancement of coloured people

established in 1909 to promote black equality through the courts of law

did not initially attract much support or achieve much success in the south

what did the NAACP achieve?

smith v allwright in 1944 made it easier for black americans to vote in the south

in 1950, the supreme court ruled that a black student could attend a white texan school that was superior the local black one

brown v board of education of topeka, kansas in 1954 led to the supreme court ruling that schools should be desegregated, reversing plessy v ferguson - however it set no timetable for action, and only asked for ‘all due speed’

what was CORE?

congress of racial equality

established in 1942

had more militant methods than the NAACP

during the 1940s it organised sit ins at segregated chicago restaurants and the freedom rides to ensure the enforcement of desegregation in interstate transport

what was the montgomery bus boycott?

1955-56

protesting segregation on buses in montgomery

triggered by the arrest of rosa parks, who refused to move so a white man could sit - NAACP lawyers took up rosa parks’ case

the montgomery improvement association (MIA) formed to organise the boycott

it lasted 380 days and 90% of black people who got the bus boycotted 

the boycott gained so much popularity and attention that the supreme court had to act - gayle v browder in 1956 ruled segregation on buses unconstitutional

the boycott also brought MLK into the spotlight as the face of black civil rights

what happened in little rock?

nine black students were selected to attend an all white school that was beginning to desegregate - the NAACP organised to take the students by car to the back entrance but one didn’t receive the message

on attempting to enter the school, elizabeth eckford was met by a mob of white people and the national guard sent by governor faubus

eisenhower federalised the national guard and sent them to protect the black students

in response, faubus closed the school for a year, but eventually it reopened and was desegregated

it provoked national debate about segregation and drew attention to racism due to federal intervention

what were the greensboro sit-ins?

1960

protested racially segregated lunch counters in department stores

students sat at segregated lunch counters and waited to be served until closing, ignoring the mobs of angry whites yelling at them and pouring things on them - they returned the next day with more and more students until all seats were occupied by them

by july 1960, greensboro lunch counters served black people as well as whites

organised primarily by the student non-violent coordinating committee (SNCC)

national media coverage led to widespread sit ins and provided a template for non-violent resistance

what were the freedom rides?

1961

tested whether restroom facilities were desegregated, as they should have been after a supreme court ruling

freedom rides - rode the whole length of the bus route

the buses were firebombed and the riders were beaten up by the KKK and arrested in birmingham but some kept going

drew widespread media coverage due to the shocking violence

what happened in birmingham?

1963

protesting for larger scale desegregation - knew that it would provoke violence but aimed to gain sympathy and show the racism in birmingham by whites supported by governor bull connor

organised by king and the southern christian leadership conference (SCLC) - a tactic used was to fill the jails, before training children in tactics before they marched peacefully

connor used fire hoses and dogs on them and the shocking pictures went world-wide

birmingham was desegregated and was a significant factor in JFK pressing forward on civil rights legislation

what was freedom summer?

1964 - year that johnson won the presidential election

protested discrimination in voter registration

SNCC sent volunteers to the south to encourage black people to vote and train them to pass the voter registration test - mostly white volunteers who could afford bail if they were arrested

17,000 tried to register to vote but only 1,600 were accepted

three volunteers, two white and one black, were murdered, as well as other violent shootings and beatings - brought media attention

what did the 1964 civil rights act do?

followed on from the 1957 and 1960 civil rights acts - did not achieve much but were the first measures to pass

bill was first drafted by JFK before his assassination in 1963 and pushed through congress by LBJ

set up an equal employment commission

ensured desegregation of schools

outlawed segregation in public facilities

strengthened black america voting rights

followed by the 1968 civil rights act which banned discrimination in housing

what did the 1965 voting rights act do?

eliminated literacy tests which were used to prevent black americans from voting

what were the northern riots?

mass riots in northern ghettos beginning in 1964

in 1965, in the watts district of LA, six days of riots killed 34 and injured 900

in 1967, riots in detroit killed 43

led to the 1968 kerner report - said the riots occurred due to the widespread poverty in northern ghettos, as well as de facto segregation in housing and schools, and called for federal aid for the ghettos

who was malcolm x?

he was sentenced to 10 years in prison for armed robbery - whilst in prison he joined the nation of islam (NOI), a religious movement established in detroit in 1930 and led by elijah muhammad

the NOI believed in black nationalism - they claimed it was better for the races to live separately and for black people to form an independent american nation

once released malcolm x became NOI’s most famous speaker - he increased membership to 40,000

in 1964, due to an argument with elijah muhammad over his multiple affairs, malcolm x left the NOI and went on a pilgrimage to mecca - he later established muslim mosque inc and the organisation of afro-american unity

he was assassinated in 1965 by members of the NOI

who was stokely carmichael?

leader of SNCC

he popularised the slogans ‘black power’ and ‘black is beautiful’

he was later involved with the black panthers

what were the black panthers?

formed in california in 1966 by huey newton and bobby searle

they wore uniforms and carried guns - they also carried cameras to record interactions with the police and police brutality

they had a ten point program focussed on improving life in the ghettos

they established clinics to advise on health, welfare and legal rights

they provided childcare for working mothers ad set up a free breakfast programmes

what was the impact of MLK’s assassination

MLK was assassinated by a white man in memphis in april 1968

led to riots in more than 100 cities across america - 46 died, 2,000 were injured, 21,000 were arrested, $67 million of property damage was caused

what were the achievements of the black civil rights movement from 1955-80?

segregation and most overt forms of discrimination came to an end

there was an increase in black political power - the number of elected and appointed black officials increased

in the late 1960s and 70s, there were a number of affirmative action programmes to help black people gain places in universities and jobs

bussing was introduced to try and end segregation in schools

what were the reasons for the success of the black civil rights movement from 1955-80?

the cold war - america’s fight against communism means they could not be seen to be denying their own citizens equal rights

presidents became more supportive of civil rights

multiple supreme court verdicts in favour of civil rights

increasing media coverage

organisations - e.g. NAACP, CORE, SNCC and SCLC

key figures - MLK, malcolm x

what did nixon do for the black civil rights movement?

he aimed to win the vote of southern white people

he got barely 5% of the black vote in 1968 and 1972

he opposed bussing and cut back on johnson’s poverty programmes

what was the indian removal act (1830)?

authorised the removal of native americans from their homelands

throughout the 1830s, many native americans were driven out of their homes and forcefully relocated

what were the main issues in native american civil rights?

tribal homelands - after the forced relocation of many native americans, the federal government made treaties (many by force) with individual tribes for their land, by the 1960s it was widely agreed that these treaties were unfair and many native americans wanted new treaties

self-determination - tribes were independent nations under the federal government, the bureau of indian affairs (BIA) implemented regulations to disrupt indian culture and oversaw the establishment of indian boarding schools from 1893, where children had to speak english, cut their hair, etc 

what was the bureau of indian affairs (BIA)?

established in 1824

managed government policies towards native americans

removed native american children from their parents and enrolled them in boarding schools designed to assimilate them to become more american

encouraged native americans to move to towns and cities for work, offering job training and housing - but disrupting tribal culture

what was the indian civil rights act (1968)?

banned tribes from restricting the civil rights of tribal members

didn’t address issues native americans had with the federal government

what was the american indian movement (AIM)?

established in 1968

consisted of mostly young urban people

had a more radical, anti-federal stance

targeted the demeaning of native american culture by white people

they got their tactics from the direct action techniques of black american civil rights groups - e.g. sit-ins, demonstrations, occupations

what were the achievements of the native american civil rights movement?

nixon rejected termination and forced assimilation and had his advisors consult tribal leaders

he brought bills to congress for indian autonomy - 1972 indian education act which funded tribal schools, 1974 indian financing act which funded tribes and the 1975 indian self-determination act which granted tribes more autonomy and control over education and economic development on the reservations

the voting rights extension covered native americans and provided language assistance when voting

in 1978, the indian child welfare act gave native americans more control over the adoption of native american children

in 1970, congress returned the land at blue lake to the taos pueblo tribe

In 1971, the alaska natives claims settlement act transferred 40 million acres of land and over $400 million to native alaskans

what were the limitations of the native american civil rights movement?

the 1975 indian self-determination act did not remove the BIA

nixon’s administration did not reform the BIA or renegotiate about native american sacred sites

there was no overall solution to the land issues and various states - e.g. hawaii in 1971 continued to evict natives from land if the state wanted it for buildings or other uses

where did hispanic groups settle?

puerto ricans tended to live in poorer regions of northern cities, especially new york and chicago

cubans tended to live in florida

mexicans tended to settle in california and texas, often working the land there

what was the bracero programme?

guaranteed incoming mexicans would be paid the same wages as existing workers - this didn’t always work

when mexicans were forced to work for lower wages, other farm workers resented them - they saw the mexicans as taking their jobs

what were the main issues facing the hispanic american civil rights movement

land - the 1946-48 american-mexican war was ended by the treaty of guadalupe hidalgo and setted the US-mexico border, but the issue of land rights in what became new mexico became a focus of protest

worker’s rights - hispanic farm workers, especially those in the bracero programme, had appalling living and working conditions, and after WW2, farmers had a ‘take it or leave it’ attitude as there were no unions and a large pool of illegal migrant workers to call on

discrimination - hispanics faced the same problems of racial discrimination as black americans, as in cities, they lived in spanish-speaking areas (barrios) in the worst parts of towns with poor government provisions

deportation - US immigration services, from 1953 onwards, deported 3.8 million hispanic people, including US citizens who were active in protest, in operation wetback which spanned 1953-58

who was cesar chavez?

mainly concerned with workers’ rights

fought a non-violent campaign for the rights of workers and focussed on working conditions

set up a farm workers’ union, organised strikes, marches and protests

gained popularity for fasting in protest and travelled widely

spoke to rallies to mobilise hispanic votes in LA

two of his organisers in the farm workers’ union moved to LA to work at ‘la raza’ - most significant of the hispanic rights movement’s newspapers

who was reies lópez tijerina?

organised protests about land rights in new mexico

began with legal protests but moved to marches and mass demonstrations

signed an agreement with black power leaders

went to a county courthouse to make a citizen’s arrest of an abusive district attorney - things went wrong, they took hostages and a gun battle followed

who was rodolfo gonzales?

focused on race

initially worked in the system bu moved to radical methods 

crusade for justice - stressed the importance of racial identity

inspired a student walkout in LA in 1966 and much of the direct action by youth, including the young citizens for community action (YCCA) which had links with black power

how did political influence affect the hispanic american civil rights movement?

‘la raza unida’, led by josé ángel gutiérrez encouraged hispanic people to vote

began in texas but spread to california and colorado

they provided candidates to vote for who would support their interests if elected

campaigned for better work, housing and education 

who were the brown berets?

young, militant organisation set up in east LA in 1966

members wore uniforms

campaigned against police brutality and led school walkouts

by 1968, there were brown berets in most urban cities with a hispanic population

what were the achievements of the hispanic american civil rights movement?

in 1954, the supreme court ruled hispanic people were equal citizens

in 1966, the cuban adjustment act ruled that all cubans who had lived in the US for a year were permanent residents

in 1968, the mexican american legal defence and education fund was set up to pursue civil rights in the courts

in 1973, the supreme court upheld an ‘equal provision of education case against a texas school

in 1974, there was a supreme court ruling on the rights of limited english proficient (LEP) students, and the equal opportunities act, which provided for more bilingual education in schools

in 1975, the voting rights act extension provided language assistance and extended rights for many groups

chavez’s campaign made a significant difference to farm workers’ conditions 

local campaigning improved schools and housing

what were the limitations of the hispanic american civil rights movement?

legal acceptance of hispanic rights was slow coming

no other hispanic groups were given the rights of the cuban adjustment act

the levels of change varied from place to place, as did levels of enforcement of legal rights

the land issues raised by protesters still have not been settled

what happened at the stonewall inn?

28 june 1969

stonewall inn in greenwich village, new york, was raided by police

after a policeman was too rough with one of the customers, around 400 people began to fight back - they threw things and yelled at the police, who had to barricade themselves inside the bar for safety

for several night running, there were protests and clashes with the police in the area around the bar

what happened following the incident at the stonewall inn?

over the next few nights after the stonewall incident, the issue of gay rights exploded

the gay liberation front (GLF) was set up

a series of large, peaceful protests for gay rights were organised

gay rights marches were held in several cities on 28 august 1970 - the new york march alone had around 10,0000 marchers

what were the main goals of the activists?

decriminalise homosexual acts

ensure equal treatment under the law

ensure the spread of unbiased information about homosexuality

encourage gays to ‘come out of the closet’ by announcing their homosexuality to friends, family and colleagues

how successful was the gay rights movement’s use of militant tactics?

the american psychological association (APA) removed homosexuality from its diseases list

countless editorial policies were modified

congress, state and local governments discussed anti-discrimination legislation

the right to publish gay and lesbian magazines was established

several employment discrimination cases were won

gay people were no longer harassed by the police

what was the problem of AIDS?

after 1980, the movement’s attention turned to AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), caused by HIV which attacks cells in the immune system - which left its victims susceptible to infections and cancers

it spread through the exchange of blood or bodily fluids, often through sexual intercourse

it first emerged in the US in 1981 and quickly became an epidemic amongst homosexual men

politicians were slow to devote resources to what they saw as a ‘gay man’s disease’ which did not threaten other americans

the movement mobilised the promotion of ‘safe sex’, prevention of discrimination of people with AIDS, and pressure on the federal government to devote greater resources to fighting the disease

what were the achievements of the gay rights movement?

by 1980, gay people experienced less overt discrimination

there was a huge growth in the public tolerance of homosexuality

gay people became more visible in the social and political life of america

what were the limitations of the gay rights movement?

not all americans liked or accepted the aims of the gay rights movement

the christian coalition, founded by evangelical minister pat robertson, launched crusades against gay rights

although many states and private corporations extended domestic-partner benefits to gay couples, the 1996 federal defence of marriage act defined marriage as ‘only’ a union between one man and one woman