Biology 1010 Final Exam Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Modules 1-15 for the Biology 1010 Final Exam, including genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, evolution, and ecology.

Dominant

An allele or trait that is expressed in the phenotype even if only one copy is present.

Recessive

An allele or trait that is only expressed when two copies are present; it is masked by a dominant allele.

Allele

A specific version or variant of a gene.

Homozygous

An individual that possesses two identical alleles for a specific gene.

Heterozygous

An individual that possesses two different alleles for a specific gene.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism, represented by the alleles it carries.

Phenotype

The observable physical traits or characteristics of an organism, determined by its proteins.

Carrier

A heterozygous individual who carries a recessive allele for a trait but does not display the trait themselves.

Autosomal trait

A trait whose gene is located on an autosome, which are human chromosomes numbered 1-22.

Sex-linked trait

A trait whose gene is located on the X sex chromosome; often indicated by males being affected disproportionately.

Codominance

A pattern of inheritance where both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote.

Incomplete dominance

A pattern of inheritance where the heterozygote displays an intermediate phenotype between the two homozygous parents.

Polygenic traits

Traits determined by multiple genes that typically result in a continuum of phenotypes, such as human skin or eye color.

Transcription

The process occurring in the nucleus where a segment of DNA is used as a template to build a complementary mRNA transcript.

RNA polymerase

The main enzyme responsible for transcribing genes into complementary mRNA.

Translation

The process occurring at ribosomes where the mRNA message is read to assemble a chain of amino acids into a protein.

Codon

A three-letter sequence of mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

tRNA

A type of RNA that brings specific amino acids to a ribosome; it contains a three-base sequence called an anticodon.

Anticodon

A special three-base sequence on tRNA that must be complementary to an mRNA codon for an amino acid to be delivered.

Mutation

Random errors in DNA replication involving substitutions, insertions, or deletions that can be passed to cell descendants.

Frameshift mutations

Mutations involving insertions or deletions that are likely to affect the resulting protein in a major way by changing the reading frame.

Antigen

A version or part of a bacteria or virus used in vaccines to initiate an immune response and antibody production.

Stem cells

Cells that have not yet differentiated and still maintain their full genetic potential.

Epigenetics

Chemical tags attached to DNA sequences acquired over a lifetime that influence how genes are expressed.

Reproductive cloning (SCNT)

Somatic cell nuclear transfer; a process that uses an adult cell as a DNA donor to create a genetically identical clone.

Molecular cloning

The process of isolating a target gene and inserting it into a bacterial plasmid to produce specific proteins, such as insulin.

Gel electrophoresis

A technique that separates DNA fragments based on size, as negatively charged DNA moves through a gel; smaller fragments travel further.

CRISPR

A tool for targeting, splicing, and editing DNA using a guide mRNA and a bacterial DNA-cutting enzyme system.

Evolution

A change in the allele frequency or genetic makeup of a population over time.

Natural Selection

The non-random process where organisms with heritable variations that provide a reproductive advantage survive and change a population's traits.

Sexual Selection

Selection for traits that increase an individual's chance of mating, even if those traits decrease the chance of survival.

Evolutionary fitness

A measure of how well a species is able to survive and reproduce in its environment; often described as 'survival of the fit enough'.

Divergent evolution

Evolution in different directions from a common point, often indicated by homologous structures like vertebrate forelimbs.

Convergent evolution

The development of similar structures, called analogous structures, in unrelated species due to similar selective pressures.

Genetic drift

An evolutionary force consisting of random changes in allele frequencies, such as the bottleneck effect or founder effect.

Gene flow

The movement of alleles between populations due to migration.

Biological Species Concept

Defines a species as a group of individuals capable of mating and producing fertile offspring.

Speciation

The formation of a new species, which can occur via allopatric or sympatric pathways.

Domain Archaea

One of the three domains of life, consisting of single-celled prokaryotes, including many extremophiles.

Gymnosperms

Naked seed plants that possess vascular tissue and produce seeds in cones.

Angiosperms

Flowering plants that possess vascular tissue and produce seeds within fruits.

Invertebrates

Animals that lack a backbone, making up over 95% of animal species.

Carrying capacity

The maximum population size that a specific environment can sustain.

Competitive exclusion

The principle that two species cannot coexist if they occupy the same niche and use the same resources in the same way.

Keystone species

A species of extra importance to the function of an ecosystem, such as bees or top predators like wolves.

10% rule

The rule describing energy flow through trophic levels where only a small fraction of energy is passed from producer to consumer.

Cell Respiration

The process occurring in the mitochondria of all living things to generate $ATP$.

Photosynthesis

Process occurring in chloroplasts where autotrophs create food, providing the basis for the food chain.

Mitosis

Cell division where one diploid cell divides into two identical diploid somatic cells.

Meiosis

Cell division where one diploid cell in the ovaries or testes produces four haploid gametes.