BIO Exam 1

observe, hypothesis, predictions, experiment/test, analyze, communicate and support, reject, or modify your hypothesis

Steps of scientific method

Proteins

Most numerous and versatile made of amino acids (monomers). Most diverse biomolecules in living organisms they regulate where and when chemical reactions occur, provide internal and external support to protect and maintain cell shape, aid in movement, transmit signals through cell membranes.

Levels of protein structure

picture

Carbohydrates

2nd most versatile biomolecule, most abundant biomolecule on earth made up of monosaccharides (monomer), the cell’s direct fuel to make ATP, used for energy storage and building biomolecules

Fiber/cellulose

type of carbohydrate that helps plants grow tall

chitin

type of carbohydrate that forms a hard outer covering to protect organisms without an internal skeletons

glycogen

a type of carbohydrate used for energy storage in animal muscle tissue

starch

a type of carbohydrate used for energy storage in plant tissue

nucleic-acids

Biomolecules made of nucleotide monomers and form the basis of life itself, are essential to all known forms of life

nucleotide monomers

consist of a five-carbon sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. The ones found in DNA are cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine

Lipids

Also known as fats, oils, and steroids. Not polymers. Forms groups of hydrocarbons which makes fatty acids, glycerol molecules. Plays vital roles in energy storage, insulation, structural support, protection, communication, hormone regulation, nuclear envelope

Triglycerides

composed of three fatty acid chains linked to a glycerol molecule, provide long term energy storage in plants (as oils) and animals (as fats), and serve as insulation against the cold in animals

Phospholipids

Composed of two fatty acid chains attached to glycerol and a phosphate mostly found in cell membranes. Made of a hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic fatty acid tails

Steroids

Formed when hydrocarbon rings join together, ex: cholesterol

Carbohydrates

Plants’ main way of energy storage because its easy but more bulky, not good for life that moves

Fats

More efficient way of storing energy but plants generally have low amounts of this

Saturated Fats

Composed of only single bonds and is typically solid unless kept warmer than room temp

Unsaturated fats

composed of at least one double bond, and stays liquid at lower temperatures, plants mostly have these

cell theory

every living organism is composed of one or more cells, cells are the basic units of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells

DNA, cell wall, ribosomes

Best structures for antibiotics because they would kill bacteria and not animal cells

How cells control what goes in or out

charge exclusion, size exclusion, receptor proteins, transport proteins

Endosymbiotic theory

an evolutionary theory stating that eukaryotic cells evolved through a process in which a larger prokaryotic cell engulfed smaller free living prokaryotes that were not digested and eventually developed into mitochondria, chloroplasts, and possible other organelles

Virus

Not considered a prokaryote or eukaryotes because they are not cells, they only consist of a small piece of genetic material wrapped in a protein coat

Structure prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have in common

DNA, plasma membrane, ribosomes, and cytoplasm

Liposome

Sphere formed by phospholipids shaken in water

membrane proteins

A virus takes advantage of these to break through a cell, these are proteins that reside within or on the cell membrane that perform various jobs, including acting as receptors for small molecules (receptor proteins), transport proteins, and enzymes

Receptor proteins

binds to specific chemical signals and can become proteins released by other cells, hormones, minerals, or other types of molecules

Diffusion

a type of passive transport that consists of the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

Simple diffusion

Process in which substances such as the small uncharged molecules of water, oxygen, or carbon dioxide slip between the large molecules in the phospholipid bilayer without much hindrance

Facilitated diffusion

a type of passive transport that requires a transport protein to move across the membrane. This is often required for hydrophilic substances and larger molecules. Ex: sodium or hydrogen ions, sugars and amino acids

hypertonic

describing a fluid that has a solute concentration higher than that of the cell it surrounds

hypotonic

describing a fluid that has a solute concentration lower than that of the cell it surrounds

Vesicles

A sac formed by the bulging inward or outward of a section of the plasma membrane that moves molecules from place to place inside a cell but also may transport substances into and out of a cell

Endocytosis

Cells importing materials in vesicles. In this process, a section of plasma membrane bulges inward to form a pocket around extracellular fluid, molecules, or virus particles. The pocket deepens until the opening in the membrane pinches off and the membrane breaks free as a closed vesicle, now wholly contained within the cell. There are 3 Types

Receptor mediated endocytosis

A form of selective endocytosis in which receptor proteins embedded in the membrane recognize specific surface characteristics of substances to be incorporated into the cell

Phagocytosis

Also known as “cellular eating” is a large-scale version of selective endocytosis in which particles considerably larger than biomolecules are ingested. Often used when certain cells in the immune system detect a viral particle and want to ingest and destroy it

Pinocytosis

A large scale form of nonselective endocytosis often described as “cellular drinking” because it involved the capture of fluids

Exocytosis

The process in which a substance is exported from the cell via vesicle, as the vesicle approaches the plasma membrane, a portion of the vesicle’s membrane fuses with the plasma membrane. the inside of the vesicle then opens to the exterior of the cell discharging its contents

cytoskeleton

the network of protein cylinders and filaments that forms the framework of a eukaryotic cell and organizes the interior of a eukaryotic cell, supports the intracellular movement of organelles such as transport vesicles and enables whole-cell movement in some cells and gives shape to eukaryotic cells through proteins (microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments)

microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments

Three main types of cytoskeletal fibers

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

an extensive and interconnected network of sacs made of a single membrane that is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope

smooth ER

Enzymes on the surface of these manufacture lipids and hormones and in some cell types also break down toxic compounds

rough ER

Embedded with ribosomes that manufactures proteins destined for membranes of other organelles or for the plasma membrane this process is known as protein synthesis

cytoplasm

the gelatin-like fluid that fills the inside of all cells

Golgi apparatus

Resembles a pile of flattened ballots and repackages and directs proteins and lipids to their final destinations either inside or outside the cell. They transport vesicles by fusing with the membranes of the target compartment membranes. Next to the ER because vesicles from the ER budding from the ER fuse with its membranes

lysosomes

organelles that act as garbage disposals and recycling centers in both plants and animals, they contain a variety of enzymes that degrade biomolecules and they release the breakdown products into the cell interior to be discarded or reused.

vacuoles

the plant cell version of lysosomes that perform many functions but it mainly functions as water storage

Mitochondrion

Fuels cellular activities and in eukaryotic cells are the main source of energy. they are made of double membranes, a smooth external membrane and a folded internal membrane. They use chemical reaction to transform the energy of food molecules into ATP (cellular respiration)

Chloroplast

plant version of mitochondria (though plants also have mitochondrion)

nucleus

contains DNA and may occupy up to 10 percent of the space inside the cell

nuclear envelope

boundary of the nucleus that consists of a phospholipid bilayer membrane specked with thousands of small openings called nuclear pores that allow chemical messages to enter and exit the nucleus. During infection, viral proteins block the nuclear pores to prevent chemical messages from leaving the nucleus

metabolism

all the chemical reactions that occur inside living cells including those that capture, store, or release energy

metabolic pathways

chains of linked events that produce key biological molecules in a cell, including important chemical building blocks such as amino acids and nucleotides

anabolism

metabolic pathways that create complex molecules from simpler compounds, requires no input of energy. Ex: photosynthesis

catabolism

metabolic pathways that release chemical energy in the process of breaking down complex molecules, provide energy for other functions

NADPH

Energy carrier that stores energy in the chemical bonds of hydrogen and is used during photosynthesis to build glucose

FADH2, NADH

Energy carrier that stores energy in the chemical bonds of hydrogen and is used during cellular respiration to build ATP

Calvin cycle

The 2nd stage of photosynthesis, light-independent reactions that convert carbon dioxide into glucose. The reactions use energy delivered by ATP and electrons and hydrogen ions donated by NADPH .

light-dependent reactions

1st stage of photosynthesis that generates energy carriers. Chlorophyll molecules absorb energy from sunlight and use that energy to break the bonds of water molecules. These events depend on a series of protein complexes embedded in the thylakoid membranes (electron transport chain)

Electron transport chain

An elaborate chain of chemical events in which electrons and protons are handed over to other molecules, ultimately making ATP and NADPH. includes photosystems II and I, ATP synthase, and additional proteins

rubisco

most abundant enzyme on the planet, catalyzes the first step of the light-independent reactions

cellular respiration

occurs in most eukaryotes, a multistep process that occurs in the cell’s mitochondria, the main way cells break down sugars to make usable cellular ATP energy. Consists of three stages. Heat is also an output useful for maintaining body temperature and homeostasis

Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

3 stages of cellular respiration

glycolysis

anaerobic process, 1st stage of cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm, carbon bonds in glucose are broken to make three-carbon compounds called pyruvate. Releases energy and results in the creation of two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH for each glucose molecule that is split

Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)

aerobic process, 2nd stage of cellular respiration, a sequence of enzyme-driven reactions where the carbon backbones of the pyruvate molecules is taken apart, releasing one CO2 molecule before and 2 during the process. This results in a large bounty of energy carriers including ATP, NADH, and FADH2. All carbons of glucose is CO2 and all glucose is converted to energy carriers

Oxidative phosphorylation

aerobic process, 3rd stage of cellular respiration that gives the largest output of ATP, hydrogen atoms are removed from NADH and FADH2 and handed over to oxygen through an electron transport chain and converted into ATP

fermentation

Used under anaerobic conditions when the oxygen level is low. Begins with glycolysis and then continues with a special set of reactions whose only role is to help perpetuate glycolysis by regenerating NAD+. The product is either lactic acid or ethanol and CO2

coenzyme

organic molecules that help substrate fit into the active site better to make the reaction more efficient

cofactor

inorganic molecule that help substrate fit into the active site better to make the reaction more efficient

competitive inhibitor

competing for same active site, will bond directly to the active site

noncompetitive inhibitor

binds somewhere else on the enzyme but changes the shape of the active site so nothing else can bind there

covalent (peptide) bonds

bonds present at primary level of protein structure

hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds

bonds present at secondary level of protein structure

covalent, hydrogen, sometimes ionic

bonds present at tertiary level of protein structure

covalent, hydrogen, sometimes ionic

bonds present at quartenary level of protein structure

CO2, ATP, NADPH

Calvin cycle inputs

Glucose, ADP, NADP+

Calvin cycle outputs

O2, ATP, NADPH

light dependent reactions outputs

light, H2O, NADP+, ADP

light dependent reaction inputs

Glucose, NAD+, ADP

Glycolysis inputs

NADH, ATP, Pyruvate

Glycolysis outputs

Pyruvate, NAD+, FAD, ADP

Krebs cycle input

CO2, NADH, FADH2, ATP

Krebs cycle output

NADH, FADH2, O2, ADP

oxidative phosphorylation inputs

NAD+, FAD, H2O, ATP, Heat

oxidative phosphorylation outputs