conditioning + learning

Associative learning

The idea that doing one thing will result in another thing happening as a consequence.

Classical conditioning

The association of two stimuli, where one stimulus predicts the occurrence of another stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

A psychologist who conducted experiments on classical conditioning, famously known for his experiments with dogs and the bell-salivation response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without any prior conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)

The natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not initially elicit any response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

The association of a behavior with its consequences, where actions followed by reinforcement increase and actions followed by punishment decrease.

B.F

A psychologist who explored operant conditioning and believed that behavior is solely influenced by external factors.

Reinforcement

The process that increases the likelihood of a behavioral response.

Punishment

The process that decreases the frequency of a behavior.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior towards a desired behavior through reinforcement.

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information that guides behavior.

Behaviorism

The view that behavior can be explained through conditioning without considering thoughts or feelings.

Acquisition

The process of learning a conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the conditioned response

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

The ability to identify and ignore irrelevant stimuli.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is only demonstrated when motivated.

Insight learning

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial-and-error.

Intrinsic motivation

The desire to engage in an activity for its own sake.

Extrinsic motivation

The desire to engage in an activity to obtain a reward or avoid punishment.

Observational learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Albert Bandura

A psychologist who explored observational learning and conducted the Bobo doll experiment.

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior.

Antisocial behavior

Negative and unhelpful behavior.

Encoding

The process of processing information into the memory system.

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing information stored in memory.

Sensory memory

A brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Short-term memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before they are forgotten or stored.

Long-term memory

The permanent storage of information in the memory system.

Explicit memories

Consciously known and declared memories that require effortful processing.

Implicit memories

Unconsciously stored memories that are processed through automatic processing.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units or meaningful segments.

Mnemonics

Techniques or strategies used to aid memory.

Priming

The unconscious activation of memory associations.

Forgetting

The inability to retrieve or recall information from memory.

Proactive interference

Prior learning interferes with the learning of new information.

Retroactive interference

Newly learned information interferes with the recall of old information.

Language

A system of communication using sounds, gestures, or symbols.

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive sound units in a language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Grammar

The rules that structure a language, including semantics and syntax.

Babbling

The stage of language development where infants produce sounds without specific meaning.

Telegraphic speech

Two-word statements used by children during the two-word stage of language development.

Broca's area

The brain region responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's area

The brain region responsible for language comprehension.

Elaborative encoding

Creating associations and connections to aid memory.

Method of loci

Using familiar locations to remember information.

Overlearning

Repeated practice of information to enhance memory.

Primacy effect

The tendency to remember the first items in a list.

Recency effect

The tendency to remember the last items in a list.

Divergent thinking

Generating multiple solutions to a problem.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution to a problem

Predictable-world bias

The tendency to see random patterns in things, such as assuming it will be sunny this week because it rained all of last week.

Howard Gardner

A theory proposing that there are multiple types of intelligence.

Naturalist intelligence

Being in tune with nature and having a deep understanding of the natural world.

Spatial intelligence

The ability to visualize and understand the three-dimensional world.

Linguistic intelligence

Proficiency in using words effectively and expressing oneself well.

Intra-personal intelligence

The capacity to understand oneself, including emotions, motivations, and strengths.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

The ability to coordinate and connect the mind and body effectively.

Musical intelligence

Discerning sounds, pitches, and rhythms, and having a deep appreciation for music.

Logical-mathematical intelligence

Proficiency in analytical thinking, problem-solving, and mathematical reasoning.

Interpersonal intelligence

The ability to understand and relate to others, including their emotions, motivations, and intentions.

Executive functioning

Associated with the ability to remember and organize information effectively.

Robert Sternberg

Proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence.

Creative intelligence

The ability to think imaginatively and come up with innovative solutions to problems.

Analytical intelligence

Proficiency in academic problem-solving and logical reasoning.

Practical intelligence

Street smarts and common sense, the ability to apply knowledge effectively in real-life situations.

Test-retest reliability

Administering the same test multiple times and obtaining consistent results.

Split-half reliability

Testing odd-numbered and even-numbered questions separately, yielding the same results.

Internal-consistency reliability

Checking the validity of individual questions within a test.

Inter-rater reliability

People with similar proficiency in the subject will score similarly to each other.