Earth Science Exam 2

Name the 3 most common elements in the earth’s crust

Oxygen, silicon, and aluminum

proton

positive charge and located in nucleus

Neutron

no charge, located in the nucleus

Electron

negative charge and located outside around the nucleus 

What tells you what kind of atom something is?

The amount of protons in the atom

List the 5 requirements a substance must meet in order to be considered a mineral and discuss whether water or ice would be considered a mineral

• Naturally occurring 

• inorganic

• solid

• of a defined chemical composition

• formed in a crystalline structure 

Water is not considered a mineral because it is not a solid thing while ice is considered a mineral

Explain the difference between graphite and diamond.

Graphite and diamonds have the same chemical formula which is just carbon (C) but different crystalline structures

Luster

How an object reflects light

Streak

Color of the minera in powdered form

Cleavage

How a mineral breaks against a surface

Hardness

The minerals resistance to scratching

Given a clear, colorless sample, how could you tell (specifically) if it were calcite or halite or quartz?

You can preform several tests but quartz is very hard, has no cleavage, and doesn’t react to acid. Halite is the softest, has a cubic cleavage, and doesn’t react to acid. Lastly calcite is softer then quartz, has a rhombic cleavage, and does react to acid

Igneous rock

Forms from solidification of molten magma, happens at/above the earths surface or beneath 

Sedimentary rock

Forms from lithification of sediment from weathered rock, chemically deposited sediments, or decayed remains of living things 

Metemorphic rock

from when existing rocks change by heat and/or pressure

Which type of rock (igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary) is most common in central New York?

Sedimentary rocks 

What are the 3 agents of change of metamorphism?

• Changes in temperature (Usually hotter)

• Changes in pressure (Usually higher)

• Presence of Chemically active fluids (Usually hot water)

What types of changes can occur in a rock as it undergoes metamorphosis?

• Changes in texture 

• Changes in composition 

What is the difference between a foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rock?

Foliated metamorphic rocks have parallel layers while non-foliated metamorphic rocks have uniform layers meaning they are not arranged

What clues can metamorphic rocks give us about the conditions under which they formed?

Metamorphic rocks tell us about the temperature, pressure, and environment from where they were formed 

What are some ways we make observations of space?

• naked eye

• observation of visible radiation and other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation

• ground-based telescope

• space craft 

• observations of gravitial waves 

Explain the basics of the Big Bang Theory. What observations support it?

The whole universe was in a hot, dense state, roughly 14 billion years ago, it exploded and still expands. 

Observations/Evidence:

• Expanding universe 

• Background radiation 

What is the Doppler effect? In what direction is light from far galaxies shifted? What does this show?

The Doppler effect is a shift in the wavelength of what we perceive through sound. The light from far galaxies is red-shifted. This shows that the more distant they are the greater the shift 

What is the approximate age of the universe, and how was it determined?

The age of the universe is approximately 14 billion years old and this was determined by Hubbles Law about the red shift

Where did all Hydrogen form? Where does the element Nickel form?

Hydrogen formed through the big bang theory from protons and electrons combining. Nickel formed in the cores of massive stars during the supernova explosion.

What process in the Sun is converting Hydrogen to Helium?

Nuclear fusion 

How do stars form and what is the eventual fate of the Sun?

Stars form from clouds of hydrogen gas called nebulae

The eventual fate of the sun is:

Main sequence → red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf → cooling over time.

Why are some stars brighter than others?

Some stars are brighter then others all due to its distance from earth and its luminosity

How did the solar system form? How did the Earth form?

Solar stystem formation:

stars forming from nebulae- as nebulae shrinks, causes motion to flatten- nebulae becomes dick of matter with concentration near center- formation of protosun

Earth formation: 

Layers formed during differentiation 

What are the terrestrial planets and the Jovian planets? How are they different?

Terrestrial Planets:

• mercury 

• Venus

• earth

• mars 

Jovian Planets: 

• jupiter 

• saturn 

• uranus 

• Neptune 

They are different because terrestrial are more “earth like” and Jovian are “gas giants”

What is the shape of the Earth? Explain what we know about Earth’s rotation and revolution.

The shape of the earth is round because it casts a circular shadow on the moon during a luner eclipse. but it is not a perfect sphere. The earth is tilted on an axis about 23.5 degrees from vertical and it rotates counter clockwise on its axis approximately every 24 hours and revolves counter clockwise around the sun approximately every 365 days

Explain the moon’s rotation and revolution, and the phases of the moon.

The moon orbits the earth and rotates once on its axis around roughly 27 days during the same period. The phases of the moon are:

• Waxing: light part getting larger 

• Waning: light part getting smaller 

Explain the connection between the moon and tides.

Tides are predictable daily changes in the elevation of the ocean surface due to the gravitational pull of the moon

• Spring tide: higher tide 

• Neap tide: sun and moon are perpendicular 

• Perigee: closest 

• Apogee: Furthest 

How do solar and lunar eclipses happen? Be able to diagram the positions of the Earth, sun, and moon, for each.

Solar eclipse: Moon blocks sunlight from earth 

Luner eclipse: Earth blocks sunlight from moon 

What causes the sky to look different at different times of day or times of year?

Daily changes are caused by earth rotation on its axis, Color changes in the sky are due to the scattered sunlight, and then the seasonal are caused by the earths tilt on its axis and orbit around the sun

What causes the seasons?

Seasons are due to the earths tilt on its axis and the seasons between the Northern and southern hemispheres are opposites 

Describe the behavior of Polaris. Why will it not always be the “north star”?

Polaris also known as “the north star” is currently located directly over the North pole. This wont always be the north star due to the wobble in the earths axis and change overtime so it will overtime move away.

How do the sun and ocean affect weather? What is the effect of wind patterns on weather?

The sun is the main energy source of earths weather it causes uneven heating, evaporation, and air movement. The ocean stores and transports heat and moisture causing ocean currents, moderate climate and also evaporation. Lastly wind distributes the heat and mosisture throughout the earth guiding storms 

What is the difference between weather and climate?

Climate is the general pattern of conditions that occur for a region over the long term.

Weather is a description of atmospheric conditions at a given moment or over a brief period of time 

What is the main gas in Earth’s atmosphere? In what level of the atmosphere does most of our weather occur?

Nitrogen is the main gas in earths atmosphere. Weather mostly occurs in the troposphere which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

How much of the sun's total radiation makes it to the Earth's surface?

Only a small portion of the suns total radiation makes it to the earths surface and whats absorbing it depends on its albedo. 

How do wind and humidity affect the perception of temperature?

Wind and humidity can change hot hot or cold the air feels for us. Wind feels colder and humidity feels hotter 

How does air temperature affect atmospheric/barometric pressure?

The air temperature can affect the pressure because warm air expanding = less dense. As it rises it causes the “lifting” effect lowering the atmospheric pressure and same with the opposite 

How does barometric pressure relate to winds and weather patterns?

Barometric pressure affects wind with the difference in pressure and in weather high pressure means clear, calm, dry days and lower pressure means cloudy, windy, stormy weather 

What is relative humidity?

Relative humidity is the measure of how much moisture is in the air, compared to the total moisture it can hold.

What is the “dew point”?

The “dew point” describes the temperature at which given the same amount of moisture in the air, it would be fully saturated 

What happens when the air is saturated?

At saturation (100% relative humidity) dew, fog, or frost form

Is warm or cold air capable of holding more moisture content?

Warm air can hold more moisture then cold air 

How does being close to the ocean impact the temperature of an area?

The ocean absorbs and releases heat slower than land so the areas have more of a stable and milder temperatures 

What is the rain shadow effect?

Windward side- air expands and cools, water vapor condesses = rain

Leeward side- Air is compressed and warms = evaporation 

Air masses

Roughly same temp conditions (polar or tropical) and moisture (continental/dry, or maritime/wet)

• cP, Continental Polar = dry, cold

• cT, Continental Tropical = dry, warm

• mP, Maritime Polar = wet, cold

• mT, Maritime Tropical = wet, warm

Fronts

A boundary between air masses of different temperatures 

• warm air forces above cool air 

• cold fronts result in thunderstorms 

Cold front spikes warm front round

What should you do if you're outside when a thunderstorm comes?

Get inside shelter in a house or car with a metal roof

WHEN THUNDER ROARS, GET INDOORS

What is the difference between a severe weather "watch" and "warning"? What is the most deadliest form of severe weather in the US?

A watch is when their are all the signs of that storm to come but it hasn’t happened yet. Be away and monitor surroundings. A warning is when the severe weather is happening and is when you should take action. 

Deadliest form of severe weather in the US is extreme heat

List factors which affect the climate in particular areas

Affects climate: 

• incoming solar radiation 

• Atmospheric pressure/wind

• Proximity to ocean/ocean currents 

• Topography/elevation 

List some factors that could lead to climate change

Factors that could lead to climate change:

• burning fossil fuels 

• Deforestation 

• Volcanos 

Past study’s of the Earth’s climate

Past:

• Fossils 

• Corals 

• Ice cores 

Where are most of the world’s deserts, and why?

Most desserts are on both sides of the equator because there are high pressure zones and dry sinking air 

Describe the role of Earth's atmosphere

The role of the earths atmosphere is to protect us from meteorite impacts, allow presence of liquid water, protects us from UV radiation, and insulates us from dramatic temperature changes

How the Ozone protects us from UV radiation 

The Ozone absorbs most of the suns UV radiation before hitting the surface of the earth

How greenhouse gases insulate us from strong temperature changes 

The greenhouse gases trap heat energy from the sun in the atmosphere

Describe the Carbon cycle and list increased anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide since the industrial revolution 

The carbon cycle moves through plants, animals, soil, oceans, and rocks. 

• Burning fossils fuels 

• Deforestation 

• Cement production

• Agriculture 

List other greenhouse gases and their anthropogenic sources

Methane- landfills, and fossil fuels 

Nitrous Oxide- fertilizers, fossil fuels  

Fluorocarbons- industrial processes 

Water vapor- deforestation, cement production 

Describe how "feedback loops" tend to promote climate change once it starts (refer to examples of melting permafrost and changing albedo of surfaces as snow/ice form)

“Feedback Loops” promote climate change once they start because once things start to change, they go in the same direction.

Snow melt- lower albedo- more melting (Back around)

Permafrost melts- more methane released- higher temp (Back around)

What are some potential results of human-caused climate change?

• Global rise in temp 

• melting of ice caps 

• coastal flooding

• increased storms 

• extinction 

• migration/breeding changes

What are things we can do to mitigate the effects of climate change?

• Decrease reliance on fossil fuels

• increased reliance on renewable resources 

• geoenginering

• change our diets:

  • more plant-based foods 

  • eat local foods

  • avoid wasting

In what ways do humans and the other living things on the Earth affect it?

Humans use a lot of energy through deforestation and burning fossil fuels, while other living things affect the earth by balancing gases, and maintaining the ecosystem

What led to the atmosphere becoming more oxygen rich in the Earth’s early history?

The atmosphere became more oxygen rich by the development of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria 

What is required for all forms of life that we know about to be able to thrive?

life requires liquid water, energy sources, essential nutrients, and a stable enviornment

What controls where different resources are found?

The resources geological process controls where it is found  

Why is it important to manage the earth’s resources?

It is important to manage earths resources because they are limited and valuable and essential for life 

What are fossil fuels? Give examples.

Fossil fuels are energy sources formed from remains of animals and plants. Some examples are:

• Coal 

• Oil 

• Natural gases

Explain the difference between renewable and nonrenewable resources? Give examples of each.

Renewable resources either have unlimited supply or can be regenerated on a human timescale. Some examples are:

• Solar energy 

• hydropower 

• wind energy

Nonrenewable resources either have a finite supply or cant be regenerated by humans. Some examples are:

• coal 

• oil

• petrolium

• natural gases

Compare the consumption of resources per capita (per person) in the U.S. and other wealthy countries to the poorer nations of the world.

Wealthy countries consume more resources per person, putting more strain on the planet, while poorer nations use less but are more vulnerable to environmental and economic changes caused by global overconsumption.

Albedo 

The measure of how much sunlight a surface reflects 

Biosphere

The part of the earth where life and all living organisms exist

Barometric Pressure

also known as “atmospheric pressure” is the weight of the air pushing down on the earths surface 

Climate

The average weather conditions in a particular region over a long period of time 

Equinox

The time of year when day and night are approximately the same length all over the earth due to the sun being directly over the equator

Geosphere

The solid part of the earth, this includes rocks, minerals, soil, and landforms 

Hydrosphere

All of the water on the earth in oceans, lakes, rivers, ice, groundwater, and the atmosphere 

Insolation 

The amount of solar radiation that reaches the earths surface 

Ion

An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, giving it an electric charge  

Isotope

A version of an element that has the same amount of protons but different amount of neutrons 

Solistice

the time of year when the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the equator, resulting in the longest or shortest day of the year. Only happens twice a year

Supernova

a powerful and explosive death of a star, releasing an enormous amount of energy and often outshining an entire galaxy for a short time.

Sustainability

the practice of using Earth’s resources in a way that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.