scientific revolution & age of exploration

circumnavigate

to travel completely around the world

scientific method

careful, step-by-step process used to confirm findings and to prove or disprove a hypothesis

hypothesis

an unproved theory accepted for the purposes of explaining certain facts or to provide a basis for further investigation

heliocentric

based on the belief that the sun is the center of the universe

gravity

force that pulls objects in Earth’s sphere to the center of Earth

calculus

a branch of mathematics in which calculations are made using special symbolic notations, developed by Isaac Newton

Christopher Columbus

(1451–1506) was an Italian explorer and navigator who went on Mediterranean and Africa expeditions, thought up a plan to sail west to reach India and China, and found support from the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1492, he sailed west from Spain and reached the Caribbean Islands, which he mistakenly thought were the Indies of Asia. He made other voyages, but strained relations with the Spanish royal officials led to his arrest and dismissal as governor of the settlements on the island of Hispaniol

vasco de gama

1460–1524 was a Portuguese explorer and navigator who in 1498 was the first person to directly reach India by sailing around Africa. He returned to India in 1502, fought Arab Muslim ships along the way, and established trading posts along the East African coast. After serving as an advisor to Portugal’s king for 20 years, he returned to India in 1524 with the title of viceroy, but fell ill and died soon after arriving

francis bacon

(1561–1626) was a distinguished English philosopher, statesman, and lawyer. A man of many talents, he promoted rational thought. He was held in high regard by philosophers and scientists in Europe as well as England

prince henry

(1394–1460) was a Portuguese prince and patron of explorers who helped his father capture the Moroccan city of Ceuta, became its governor, and sponsored voyages to the Madeira Islands and the West African coast. He raised money for expeditions and established a base for explorers in Sagres, later adding an arsenal, an observatory, and a school for studying geography. His support of cartography, advances in navigation, and exploration provided a foundation for Portugal’s rise to international dominance and acquisition of its colonial empire in the sixteenth century

ferdinand magellan

(1480–1521) was a Portuguese navigator and explorer who as a young man went on Portuguese expeditions to India and Africa, and later won Spanish support for his September 1519 expedition to sail west to reach the Moluccas. Beginning with five ships and a crew of 270, the long voyage through unknown waters encountered rough weather, scurvy, starvation, and eventual mutiny. He was killed in 1521 during a battle in the present-day Philippines, and only one of his ships, carrying spices and 18 of the original crew, circumnavigated the world and at last returned to Spain in September 1522

nicholas copernicus

1473–1543 was a Polish astronomer who concluded that the sun is the center of the universe around which Earth and the other planets revolve. This contradicted the religious and scientific belief that Earth was the center of the universe. Although he did not suffer immediate challenges from the Church, his most important work did not appear in print until after his death

galileo

(1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer and mathematician whose discoveries using a telescope supported the heliocentric universe theories of Copernicus. His discoveries challenged established scientific and religious thinking. He was an important contributor to the development of the scientific method used by modern scientists

johannes kepler

1571–1630) was a German astronomer whose discoveries expanded on Copernicus’s heliocentric universe. His research showed that the planets move in a particular orbit around the sun. His achievements included a correct description of how vision occurs, as well as how a telescope uses light

robert boyle

(1627–1691) was one of the leading minds of the late 1600s. An English-Irish philosopher and writer, he focused on chemistry, physics, and natural history. His work with pressurized air led to the development of Boyle’s Law, which describes the relationship between pressure and the volume of gas. He was one of the founders of the Royal Society of London

tycho brahe

(1546–1601) was a Danish astronomer who produced the most accurate measurements and locations of the stars before the use of the telescope. His observation that a new star had appeared in an existing constellation challenged the belief that the stars were fixed and forever unchanging

rene descartes

(1596–1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. He was one of the first to abandon traditional methods of thought based on Aristotle’s teachings. Instead, he promoted a new science based on observation and experiments. For this, he has been called the father of modern philosophy

boers

Dutch farmers who settled in Cape Town, Africa, and eventually migrated inland

line of demarcation

line set by the Treaty of Tordesillas dividing the non-European world into two zones, one controlled by Spain and the other by Portugal