Chapter 9 - Lifespan Development: Theories & Stages

Physical development

Growth and changes in the body and brain, senses, motor skills, and health and wellness.

Cognitive development

Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning and creativity.

Psychosocial development

Emotions, personality and social relationships.

Normative approach

A method used by psychologists to study large numbers of children to determine norms (average ages) of when most children reach specific developmental milestones.

Continuous development

Views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills.

Discontinuous development

Views development as occurring in unique stages (specific times or ages).

Nature vs nurture

The debate considering how our personalities and traits are the result of our genetics and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment.

Psychosexual theory

Sigmund Freud's theory that childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults.

Stages of psychosexual development

Five stages where children's pleasure-seeking urges are focused on different erogenous zones: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital.

Psychosocial theory

Erik Erikson's theory that emphasizes the social nature of development.

Developmental milestones

Specific skills or behaviors that most children can do at a certain age, such as crawling, walking, and speaking in sentences.

Universal development

The belief that the process of development is the same for all children.

Cultural differences in child care practices

Variations in child-rearing methods across cultures that can accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones.

Evidence for one course of development

Studies showing that children from all around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence.

Evidence for many courses of development

The idea that individual differences in development can arise from genetic and environmental factors.

Twin studies

Research that examines the influence of genetics versus environment by comparing identical and fraternal twins.

Adoption studies

Research that investigates whether adopted children are more like their biological or adopted parents.

Stages of prenatal development

The phases of development that occur before birth.

Stages of childhood development

The phases of development that occur during childhood.

Stages of adolescence development

The phases of development that occur during adolescence.

Stages of emerging adulthood

The phases of development that occur during emerging adulthood.

Stages of adulthood development

The phases of development that occur during adulthood.

Five stages of grief

The model describing the emotional responses to loss, including denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

Argues that personality development takes place across the lifespan, not just in childhood.

Ego Identity

Based on the belief that social interactions affect our sense of self.

Psychosocial Task

In each stage of Erikson's theory, there is a task that must be mastered to feel a sense of competence.

Trust vs. Mistrust

0-1 years: Trust that basic needs will be met; develop a sense of independence.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

1-3 years: Develop autonomy while facing potential shame or doubt.

Initiative vs. Guilt

3-6 years: Take initiative on activities; may develop guilt when unsuccessful.

Industry vs. Inferiority

7-11 years: Develop self-confidence in abilities or sense of inferiority.

Identity vs. Confusion

12-18 years: Experiment with and develop identity and roles.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

19-29 years: Establish intimacy and relationships with others.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

30-64 years: Contribute to society and be part of a family.

Integrity vs. Despair

65+ years: Assess and make sense of life and contributions.

Cognitive Theory (Piaget)

Focused on children's cognitive growth and theorized that cognitive abilities develop through specific stages.

Schemata

Concepts used to categorize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Incorporates information into existing schemata.

Accommodation

Change schemata based on new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

0-2 years: World experienced through senses and actions; understanding of object permanence.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, typically observed in infants.

Preoperational Stage

2-6 years: Use of words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning.

Egocentrism

Inability to take the perspective of others.

Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years: Understand concrete events and perform arithmetical operations.

Formal Operational Stage

12+ years: Utilize abstract reasoning and moral reasoning.

Prenatal Development

Stages of development before birth, including germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

Germinal Stage

Weeks 1-2: Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote.

Mitosis

Process of cell division that leads to the formation of specialized cells.

Embryonic Stage

Weeks 3-8: The zygote becomes an embryo and organs begin to function.

Placenta

Structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen to the embryo.

Fetal Stage

Weeks 9-40: The baby's brain develops and the body adds size and weight until full-term.

Teratogen

Any environmental agent (biological, chemical, or physical) that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus.

Fetal-alcohol syndrome

Collection of birth defects associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

Newborn reflexes

Inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation that help the newborn survive.

Rooting reflex

Baby turns its head towards something that touches its cheek.

Sucking reflex

Suck on objects placed by the mouth.

Grasping reflex

Cling to objects placed in hands.

Moro reflex

Baby spreads arms and pulls them back in when they are startled/feel like they are falling.

Blooming period

Neural pathways form thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood.

Pruning period

Neural connections are reduced during childhood and adolescence to allow the brain to function more efficiently.

Motor skills

Ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.

Fine motor skills

Focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, enabling coordination of small actions.

Gross motor skills

Focus on large muscle groups that control arms and legs and involve larger movements.

Baillargeon study

Infants observed a truck roll down an unobstructed track and spent more time looking at an obstruction scenario, suggesting they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other.

Cognitive milestones

Developmental markers indicating cognitive abilities at various ages.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, typically developed by 8 months.

Theory of mind

The understanding that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own.

Developmental psychologists

Professionals who study the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout life.

Intellectual disability (ID)

A condition characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

ADHD

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Attachment

A long-standing connection or bond with others.

Health Attachments

One of the main psychosocial milestones of infancy.

Harry Harlow's Study

Separated newborn monkeys from their mothers and presented them with two surrogate mothers, one made of wire mesh that dispensed milk and one made from cloth that did not dispense milk.

Comfort and Security

Critical components to maternal-infant bonding as suggested by Harlow's results.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Defined attachment as the affectional bond/tie that an infant forms with the mother.

Normal Social and Emotional Development

Requires a bond to be made with the primary caregiver.

Secure Base

Parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.

Requirements for Healthy Attachment

1. Caregiver must be responsive to the child's physical, social, and emotional needs. 2. The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions.

Strange Situation

A procedure used by Mary Ainsworth to observe how children bond with their caregivers.

Styles of Attachment

Identified by Ainsworth through the Strange Situation: 1. Secure 2. Avoidant 3. Resistant 4. Disorganized.

Secure Attachment

Child uses the parent as a secure base from which to explore and shows distress when the mother leaves, but is happy upon her return.

Avoidant Attachment

Child is unresponsive to the parent and does not care if the parent leaves, showing slow positive reaction upon return.

Resistant Attachment

Child shows clingy behavior but rejects the mother's attempts to interact, becoming disturbed when the mother leaves.

Disorganized Attachment

Child shows odd behavior around the caregiver, such as freezing or running away when the mother returns.

Self-Concept

Development of a positive sense of self, which is the main psychosocial milestone of childhood.

Positive Self-Concept

Leads to more confidence, independence, better performance in school, and willingness to try new activities.

Self-Recognition

By 18 months, a baby can recognize themselves in the mirror.

Social Behavior

Increased interaction and play with other children after establishing a self-concept.

Age 2-4 Social Play

Children enjoy playing with others and can label themselves as boy or girl.

Age 4 Development

Children can cooperate, share, initiate tasks, and carry out plans.

Age 6 Self-Identification

Children can identify themselves in terms of group membership.

Authoritative Parenting Style

Parents set reasonable demands, express warmth, and listen to the child's viewpoint.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

Parents value conformity and obedience, are rigid, and express little warmth.

Permissive Parenting Style

Parents make few demands and rarely use punishment.

Uninvolved Parenting Style

Parents are indifferent and neglectful, responding little to the child's needs.

Temperament

Innate traits that influence how a child thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.

Easy Temperament

Characterized by positive emotions and adaptability to change.

Difficult Temperament

Characterized by negative emotions and difficulty adapting to change.

Adrenarche

The maturing of the adrenal glands during puberty.

Gonadarche

The maturing of the sex glands during puberty.

Menarche

The beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12-13 years old.