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Systematics
the study of the relationship among species/lineages
Classification
defining and naming groups of organisms
Character
heritable feature possessed by an organism
Synapomorphy
a shared, derived trait
Clade
a group of organisms that includes the most recent common ancestor of all its members and all descendants of that common ancestor
Clagogenesis
the development of a new clade
Anagenesis
a species changing over time
Convergence
similarities that arose independently in two or more organisms that are not closely related
Derived
describes a character state that is present in one or more subclades, of a clade under consideration
Taxonomy
defining and naming species (generally)
Monophyletic
all members of a named group (no others) are derived from a common ancestor
Paraphyletic
all members of a named group (and others) are derived from a common ancestor
Polyphyletic
members of a named group are not derived from an immediate common ancestor
Homology
a trait that has been inherited from a common ancestor that also possessed the trait
Lineage
any group of organisms connected by a continuous line of descent
Outgroup
a group of organisms outside the clade of interest, generally chosen because they lack characters important to the clade of interest OR chosen because they share characters with the clade of interest
Primitive
describes a character that is present in the common ancestor of a clade
Sister group
the two clades resulting from the splitting of a single lineage
Taxa
a broadly used term that can apply to any focal group
Adaptation
a feature, which may or not be conspicuous, that has a very specific function that acts to specialize the organism
Specialist
an organism/species that performs best in very specific situations
Generalist
a relatively unspecialized organism
Species richness
Higher near the equator, Stable conditions, More food availability, More space
Speciation rate
Higher near poles, Unstable conditions, Fewer species
Competitive exclusion principle
species can be competitively excluded from a niche by dominant/abundant incumbent species
Marine fishes
Concentrated near coral reefs, Lots of food, shelter from predators
Freshwater fishes
Loosely concentrated near the equator, Mainly on large landmasses with large, warm river systems
Rays
Rays are live-bearing.
Skates
Skates lay eggs and have prominent dorsal fin.
Rays vs Skates
Rays have absent or reduced dorsal fin, are kite-shaped, while skates have fleshy tails and lack spines.
Selachii
Selachii refers to sharks.
Skeletal anatomy of sharks
Includes 5-gill arches, pectoral girdle, pectoral fins, first dorsal fin, vertebrae, second dorsal fin, pelvic fins, anal fin, caudal fin.
Buoyancy in sharks
Achieved through a large, oil-filled liver and a heterocercal fin where most of the tail is above the midline.
Gill openings in sharks
Are independent and physically separate but are connected to the esophagus.
Modes of respiration in sharks
Include actively pumping water across gills with mouth movements, using spiracle to pull water in, and ram ventilation.
Placoid scales
Type of scale found in sharks.
Teeth in sharks
Made of calcium phosphate and can be smooth or serrated.
Ampullae of Lorenzini
Electroreceptors that detect electric fields.
Cartilaginous skeleton
Skeleton type found in sharks.
Chondrocranium
The skull of sharks that lacks sutures.
Soft fin rays
Unsegmented in sharks.
Teeth attachment in sharks
Teeth are not fused to the jaw.
Claspers
Structures that males have for reproduction.
Dipnoi
Lungfishes found on 3 different continents due to the breakup of the Gondwana landmass.
Aestivation
A period of dormancy when the water dries up; lungfishes can survive up to 5 years.
Bony skeleton
Type of skeleton found in lungfishes.
Actinistia
Coelacanths that have a vestigial lung derived from the swim bladder.
Polypteriformes
Reedfishes that respire using lungs and can make short over-land excursions.
Acipenseriformes
Includes sturgeons and paddlefishes; sturgeons lack scales and have bony plates.
Amiiformes
Bowfins with a vascularized swim bladder.
Lepisosteiformes
Gars with a vascularized swim bladder that functions as a lung.
Elopiformes
Tarpon that are obligate air breathers.
Anguilliformes
True eels with different scale types in freshwater and marine environments.
Osteoglossiformes
Includes arapaima, arowana, and elephant fish with bony tongues.
Ostariophysi
Includes carps, catfish, tetras, and knife fish with a Weberian apparatus.
Fish swimming modes
Include body-caudal fin (BCF) swimming and median-paired fin (MPF) swimming.
Body-caudal fin (BCF) swimming
Includes various swimming types such as anguilliform, carangiform, and thunniform.
Caudal fin types
Include protocercal, heterocercal, hypocercal, homocercal, and hemihomocercal.
First jaws in fish
Occurred in placoderms with jaws made of bony plates.
Aquatic environment
More viscous, requiring more force and motion for prey capture.
Gill-based respiratory system
Necessitates well-developed gill arches in aquatic environments.
Fish limbs
Less dexterous due to the absence of hands and digits; functional demands for prey capture lie with jaws and branchial system.
Terrestrial organisms
Less reliant on jaws for feeding compared to aquatic organisms.
Terrestrial environment
More beneficial to invest in areas like hearing rather than jaw development.
Pectoral fins
Responsible for most fine-scale maneuvering in fish.
Pectoral girdle
Consists of the cleithrum, scapula, and coracoid bones.
Muscle attachment
Muscles attach from cleithrum and coracoid to the radials of the pectoral fin.
Lever systems
Mechanical systems that include Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3 configurations.
Type 1 lever
F between L and force; provides a middle ground.
Type 2 lever
L between F and force; primarily designed for strength.
Type 3 lever
Force between F and L; produces large and fast movements with little effort.
Jaw length
Negatively correlated with bite force in mammals.
Herbivores and carnivores
Have short jaws that produce a forceful bite.
Insectivores
Have long jaws that produce a fast bite.
Jaw length/shape
Correlated with bite force in mammals/birds.
Form-function relationships
When anatomy predictably manifests as a function.
Functional morphology
Characterizes the relative size and shape of the jaws.
Crevice feeders
Have big jaws, upper longer than lower.
Molluscivores
Have intermediate jaws, both the same length.
Browsers
Have compact jaws, slightly downturned.
Coral reefs
Provide a complex benthic environment, making biting a viable feeding strategy.
Fish feeding strategies
Expanded rapidly following the formation of modern reefs.
Fish jaw biomechanics
Biting and suction feeding modes nearly comprehensively differ in their biomechanics.
Bony plates
Effective against teeth, less effective if predator can eat them whole.
Spines
Always arranged along the top and bottom of the body, increases body depth; often utilized as a delivery system for venom.
Stonefishes
The most venomous fishes in the world, produce verrucotoxin.
Tetrodotoxin
Produced by pufferfish, attacks the nervous system and causes paralysis.
Mimicry
************* something else that's dangerous, requires predator avoidance.
Pseudomimicry
Anatomy mimics another anatomical feature, misdirecting attention away from vital organs.
Crypsis
Color pattern blends into surrounding environments to avoid predator attention.
Large body size
Predators cannot eat them, too much risk/hassle to attack.
Sociality
Part of a large group; prey can detect predators faster and take shelter amongst numbers.
Fleeing
Physically outswim predators or retreat to areas inaccessible to predators.
Electric shock
Electric fields mainly for search for prey; electric eels produce a strong electric current.
Life history
Pattern of allocation of resources to maintenance, growth, and reproduction throughout an organism's lifetime.
Guppies
Distributed in ponds throughout Trinidad, co-occur with rivulus in low predation and crenicichla in high predation.
Guppy coloration
Fewer, smaller spots in high predation areas to reduce visual detection by predators.
Salmon lifecycle
Eggs hatch in freshwater after 3 months, followed by stages from alevin to adult.
Olfaction
Smell becomes imprinted when they are smolts before migrating to sea.
Magnetoreception
Have a domain magnetite in their skull.