Domain 1 D: Schools of Psychology

Who are the 2 main thinkers of Structuralism

1. Wilhelm Wundt - founder of experimental psychology and opened the door for measurement and objective findings

2. Edward Titcherner - founder of structuralism

What is Behavioural school of thought

believe behaviour can be studied in a methodical and recognizable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. Thus, all behaviour can be clarified without the need to reflect on psychological mental states

Who are the thinkers that belong to the Behavioural school of thought

1. Edwin Guthrie

2. Ivan Pavlov

3. Joseph Wolpe

4. B. F. Skinner

Contiguity theory

Edwin Guthrie

The general principles are:

1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e., do things).

2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific movements, instruction must present very specific tasks.

3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response.

4. The last response in a learning situation should be correct since it is the one that will be associated.

Classical conditoning

Ivan Pavlov

• Conditioned stimulus - the conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

• Unconditioned stimulus - In the learning process known as classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.

• Unconditioned response - In classical conditioning, an unconditioned response is an unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of food is the unconditioned response.

• Conditioned response - Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). ... After pairing is repeated (some learning may occur after only one pairing), the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone.

• Stimulus generalization - A conditioned stimulus is repeated along with another like stimulus until the latter alone produces the response. For example, if a child has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.

• Extinction - A conditioned response fades over time as a conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned, natural stimulus. A teacher has been using positive reinforcement to encourage good behaviour in her classroom. When a student raises his or her hand instead of shouting out the answers, the teacher rewards the student with a fruit-flavored candy. After several days of this, the children become sick of the candy, and stop raising their hands. Because the children have become satiated and the candy is no longer rewarding, extinction of the trained behaviour has occurred.

• Counter conditioning- A conditioned stimulus is coupled with another stimulus to evoke a response contrary to that produced by the original stimulus. For example, a dog is afraid of men wearing hats. When a man wearing a hat approaches, the dog is repeatedly fed his favorite food. The goal is to replace the animal’s apprehension with the pleasure elicited by the food. Counter-conditioning must be done gradually, however; if the process is rushed, the favorite food may take on the fear association instead.

Joseph Wolpe

Wolpe applied classical conditioning theory to psychotherapy, originating reciprocal inhibition and systematic desensitization. To treat anxiety, he joined relaxation with an anxiety-causing stimulus to render the stimulus harmless.  Systematic desensitization - The process of systematic desensitization occurs in three steps. The first step of systematic desensitization is the identification of an anxiety inducing stimulus hierarchy. The second step is the learning of relaxation or coping techniques. When the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them in the third step to react towards and overcome situations in the established hierarchy of fears. The goal of this process is for the individual to learn how to cope with, and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy.

Operant Conditioning

Positive reinforcement - the offering of desirable effects or consequences for a behaviour with the intention of increasing the chance of that behaviour being repeated in the future.

Negative reinforcement - is a psychological reinforcement by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus when a desired response occurs.

Avoidance learning - Avoidance learning acts similarly to negative reinforcement except, "the desired behaviour serves to prevent the onset of a noxious stimulus, or in a variant, terminates such a stimulus that alreadyexists.

Negative punishment – Remove what individuals like when they have performed the undesired behaviour

Positive punishment – Give individuals what they do not like when they have performed the undesired behaviour. Positive punishment is what we think of when we think of a "punishment"

Extinction - involves withholding the pleasing stimulus that is maintaining the unwanted behaviour each time the behaviour occurs. This happens until the behaviour gradually decreases to zero or the desired level.

Fixed interval - Reinforcement is repeated at timely intervals (for example, every 10 seconds)

Variable interval - Reinforcement interval changes

Fixed ratio - Reinforcement occurs at fixed response intervals (for example, giving reinforcement after every fifth response)

Variable ratio - Reinforcement happens at a rate tied to the number of responses (the actual number of responses to each reinforcement may fluctuate like payments on a capped variable rate mortgage, but the ratio, on average, stays constant)

Satiation - refers to the effectiveness of a consequence being reduced when the source of the stimulant has satisfied the individual or the individual was not ‘hungry’ for the stimulant.

Immediacy - refers to the closeness in time that feedback is given to a response. The more immediate the consequence or feedback, the better the response.

Contingency - refers to the schedule of reinforcement or level of consistency of delivery of the consequence following the behaviour consistently over time.

Size - refers to the determination the individual makes about the consequence (positive or negative) about whether or not the behaviour is worth the effort.

Premack principle - suggests that if a person wants to perform a given activity, the person will perform a less desirable activity to get at the more desirable activity. In behaviourist terms, activities become reinforcers.Flooding therapy - Flooding is a form of behaviour therapy and based on the principles of respondent conditioning. It is sometimes referred to as exposure therapy or prolonged exposure therapy.

Token economy - This method rewards desired behaviours with tokens such as poker chips, stars and scrip that can be saved and traded for reinforcement, such as an outing to a restaurant or a movie.

Shaping - This conditioning is used to encourage specific behaviour by rewarding actions that come increasingly closer to the desired behaviour.

Differential reinforcement - This program combines extinction of unwanted behaviour with positive reinforcement for desirable behaviour.

Vicarious conditioning (primary and secondary) - Dismissed by Thorndike and Watson, vicarious conditioning or learning by observation was later demonstrated by Bandura's work with children. Bandura discovered a child could learn by observing another's experience with classical or instrumental conditioning.

Avoidance learning - Refers to a form of learning that seeks to stop an aversive stimulus or an unpleasant situation by engaging the new or learned behaviour. For example, a spouse may learn to avoid an argument by providing their partner time and space the first hour they are home from work.

Noncontingent reinforcement - The delivery of a reinforcing stimulus on a response independent basis. This element of behavioural therapy is commonly used in addressing aberrant behaviours in persons with developmental disabilities.