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what is offender profiling?
A method of working out the characteristics of an offender by examining the characteristics of the crime and the crime scene
what is a disorganised type of offender?
crime scene is left with many clues such as fingerprints, there is little evidence of engagement with the victim, and the offender has lower intelligence and competence
what is a organised type of offender?
type of offender commits a planned crime and may engage in violent fantasies with the victim and is high in intelligence and is socially competent
what is the top-down approach?
analysis of previous crimes creates a profile of a likely offender. a profiler uses this knowledge to narrow the field of possible suspects.
relies on the intuition and beliefs of the profiler
where did the top-down approach originate?
in the FBI
first a way to try and solve the most extreme cases
what is the difference between the top-down and bottom-up approach?
top-down = profiler has a ‘feel’ for the type of person who commit a crime
bottom-up = regarded as more scientific and logical
who identified the stages in the top-down approach and how many stages are there?
(Douglas et al, 2006) identified 6 stages
what are the 6 stages in the top down approach?
profiling inputs
decision-making models
crime assessment
criminal profile
crime assessment
apprehension
Profiling Inputs → "Profiling Inputs"
Decision-making models → "Determine"
Crime assessment → "Critical"
Criminal profile → "Criminal"
Crime assessment → "Cases"
Apprehension → "Accurately"
what is the profiling inputs stage?
data collection:
description of the crime, background information about the victim and details about the crime itself
even if details seem trivial they should still be collected
no suspects should be considered as this may bias the investigation
what are the decision process models?
profiler starts to make make decisions about the data and organises it into meaningful categories
some of the following issues are considered:
murder type - mass, spree or serial killers
time factors - did the time take a long time, day or night?
locational factors - crime scene same as murder scene
what is a mass murder?
one indecent with no significant time interval
what is a serial murder?
more than one person over an extended period of time
what is a spree murderer?
more than one person being killed over a short period of time
what is the crime assessment?
based on data collected, the crime is classified as organised or disorganised
this distinction presumes there is correspondence between the offence and offender
what is a criminal profile?
a profile is constructed of the offender which includes their hypothesis about the offenders likely background, habits and beliefs of the offender
used to work out a strategy for the investigation to help catch the offender - it is important to anticipate how this person will respond to investigative efforts and how they will react when caught
what is a crime assessment?
a written report is given to the investigating agency and persons matching the profile are evaluated
if new evidence or no suspects is found then they go back to stage 2
what is apprehension?
if a suspect is apprehended then the entire profile-generating process is reviewed to check that at each stage the conclusions made were legitimate and consider how the profile may be revised for future cases
what is an issue with the top-down approach (basis is flawed)?
The top-down approach is based on interviews with 36 of the most infamous criminals (Bundy, Kemper etc.) and by the very nature of these criminals this is a problem.
Serial killers are manipulative and often lie so to have an approach to profiling based on such interviews is not ideal
The information produced by such criminals is not reliable.
Additionally, these criminals are a rare sample who would not be representative of the general population.
what is an issue with the top-down approach (not scientific)?
solely based on the opinions and intuition of profilers.
Reliance on intuition is problematic as personal emotional memories can sway intuition and It can even be compared to horoscopes whereby the descriptions are made to fit any situation for most people (Barnum effect).
This is a problem especially if profiling is wrong. Profiling holds greater consequences than horoscopes.
Wrong profiling could and has resulted in wrongful convictions and of course a criminal on the loose.
what is a strength of the top down approach (research shows it is useful)?
Police who have used the FBI methods (top-down approach) have found it useful.
Copson (1995) conducted a questionnaire on 184 US police officers where 82% said that the technique was useful and 90% said that they would use it again.
However, what about other police forces in other countries? We could say this Research fails to be generalizable to other forces and places.
Additionally, the sample size is small and hardly representative of how useful the approach is which is a clear limitation.
what is an issue with the top down approach (useless categories)?
Distinguishing between organised and disorganised offenders by using organised and unorganised is a weakness of the TD approach
Tuvey (1999) suggests that these categories are not dichotomous (separate), rather, they are on a continuum and can overlap.
Douglas et al (1992) suggested that there be a mixed offender category – however this would reduce the usefulness of the classification as this new category would be considered a ‘dust bin’ for offenders that do not fit the norm.
The problem then is what is the point of having these categories if they do not exist separate to one anther rendering the approach of little use.
what is the bottom-up approach?
a data-driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce a prediction about the likely characteristics of offender
what is geographical profiling?
a form of bottom up profiling based on the pattern shown by the location/locations of a series of crimes
what is investigative psychology?
a form of bottom up profiling based on psychological theory
what are the two types of bottom up profiling?
geographical profiling and investigative psychology
who developed investigative psychology?
David Canter
what did Canter propose profiling should be based on?
psychological theory and research
what are the three main features of Canter’s approach?
interpersonal coherence
forensic awareness
smallest space analysis
what is interpersonal coherence?
people are consistent in their behaviour so therefore there should be links with elements of the crime and how people behave in everyday life
peoples behaviour also changes over time and therefore looking at the differences over time in crimes may offer further clues
what is forensic awareness?
certain behaviours may reveal an awareness of particular police techniques and past experience e.g. Davies et al (1997) found that rapists who conceal fingerprints often had a previous conviction for burglary
what is the smallest space analysis?
statistical technique developed by Canter - data about crime scenes and offender characteristics are correlated so the most common connections can be identified
what is an example of the smallest space analysis?
Salfati and Canter (1999) analysed the co-occurrence of 48 crime scenes and and offender characteristics taken from 82 cases where the victim was a stranger
found three underlying themes:
instrumental opportunistic: ‘instrumental’ refers to using murder to obtain something or accomplish or goal; '‘opportunistic’ means offender probably took easiest opportunities
instrumental cognitive: a particular concern about being detected and therefore more planned
expressive impulsive: uncontrolled, in the heat of strong emotions, may feel provoked by victim
what did Canter say about geographical profiling?
people do not just reveal themselves through the crimes they commit but also the locations they choose
how can the crimes location be a clue in a investigation?
it makes sense to assume offenders are more likely to commit a crime where they live or habitually travel to because it takes the least effort
what does geographic profiling do?
analyses the locations between a connected series of crimes and considers where the crimes were committed, the spatial relationship between different crime scenes and how they may relate to an offenders place of residence
what is circle theory?
Canter and Larkin (1993) suggested that a criminals base may be identifiable by looking at the spatial distribution of crime scenes - if crimes of similar nature are plotted on a map then it may be possible to join the plot points together to form a circle - criminals base would be in the centre
what is a marauder?
home base is within the geographical area in which crimes are committed
what is a commuter?
offenders who travel to another geographic area and may also commit crimes in a defined space around which circles can be drawn
what is criminal geographic targeting?
computerised system developed by Rossmo based on his formula
formula produces a 3D map displaying spatial data related to time, distance and movement to and from crime scenes
map is called a jeopardy surface - different colours indicate likely closeness to residence
what is a strengths of the bottom up approach (scientific basis)?
Point: Bottom-up approaches are not as scientific as they claim to be.
Evidence: These approaches rely on statistical techniques and computer analysis, which give the impression of being more objective than top-down methods. However, the accuracy depends on the data input and assumptions used. For instance, issues arise when tools like the jeopardy surface formula rely on flawed assumptions.
Explanation: While bottom-up methods appear objective and systematic, they are inherently biased due to reliance on data that may not fully represent criminal behavior.
Link: This highlights that while bottom-up approaches have potential, their lack of true objectivity undermines their scientific reliability
what is a strength of the bottom up approach (usefulness of investigative psychology)?
Point: The practical usefulness of investigative psychology in solving crimes is limited.
Evidence: A study by Copson (1995) revealed that 75% of police officers found profiles helpful, but only 3% felt it directly helped identify offenders. Furthermore, in a single year, profiling was used in only 75 cases, with most officers reporting they would use it again.
Explanation: These findings indicate that while investigative psychology offers some benefits, such as providing insight and guidance, it rarely plays a decisive role in catching offenders.
Link: This suggests that the method's value lies more in the broader support it provides rather than its direct impact on solving crimes.
what is an issue with the bottom-up approach (lack of success of circle theory)?
Point: Circle theory is not a particularly effective method for offender profiling.
Evidence: Canter and Larkin (1993) found that 91% of offenders in their study acted as "marauders," rendering the distinction between marauders and commuters less meaningful. Petherick (2006) also criticized the theory for its flaws, such as incorrect assumptions about an offender's base location.
Explanation: The theory's rigid classifications and oversimplified spatial models often lead to errors, such as police focusing on the wrong areas. This limits its practical application in criminal investigations.
Link: Therefore, circle theory has limited usefulness and is unlikely to contribute significantly to solving crimes.
why can the bottom up approach be criticised (lack of value in geographic profiling)?
Point: Geographic profiling offers few advantages over traditional investigative methods.
Evidence: Rossmo (1999) argued for its potential to identify offender locations in certain cases, such as house-to-house searches. However, the method has faced criticism, particularly as it does not solve crimes directly. In one example, the UK Home Office found Rossmo’s methods ineffective, leading to their discontinuation.
Explanation: Geographic profiling’s reliance on spatial data often fails to address the complexity of criminal behavior, limiting its utility to narrow circumstances.
Link: As a result, the drawbacks outweigh its benefits, making it an unconvincing alternative to more traditional approaches.
what is the atavistic form?
an explanation for criminal behaviour, suggesting that certain individuals are born with a criminal personality and this innate personality is a throwback to earlier primate forms
who came up with the atavistic form?
Lombroso
what did Lombroso first say?
he wrote the L’uomo delinquente in 1876 setting out his view that offenders posessed similar characteristics to lower primates which could explain their criminality
what did Lombroso then publish?
four further additions of this book which revised his views - formulated his ideas at the time Darwin published the theory of evolution
how did the theory of evolution influence Lombroso’s theory?
suggested criminals are a throwback to an earlier species
atavistic means a tendency to revert to the ancestral type
what did Turvey (2011) say?
identifies 18 different characteristics that make up the atavistic type
basic assumption is the innate physiological make up is what causes the person to become a criminal
what evidence did Lombroso base this theory on?
his own research using post-mortem examinations of criminals and studying the faces of living criminals
made precise measurements of skulls and other physiological characteristics
he and his co-workers examined over 50,000 bodies in the whole of his career
in a study of 383 convicted italian criminals he found that 21% had just one atavistic trait and 43% had at least 5
what did Lombroso later recognise?
it is unlikely that only one factor would be the cause of criminality
what did Lombroso propose inherited atavistic form interacted with?
a persons physical and social environment
why is Lombroso’s view still determinist?
suggests factors outside a persons control determine if they become a criminal
what three types of criminals did Lombroso distinguish between?
born criminals = the atavistic type, throwbacks identifiable by their physical characteristics
insane criminals = suffering from a mental illness
criminaloids = a large general class of offenders whose mental characteristics predisposed them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances
what were some of the other approaches to criminal types based on?
body shape/somatotype
what did Kretschmer (1921) suggest?
there were four types - based on his studies from over 4,000 criminals
leptosome or asthenic = tall and thin → petty thieves
athletic = tall and muscular → crimes of violence
pyknic = short and fat → crimes of deception and sometimes violence
dysplastic or mixed = more than one type → crimes against morality e.g. prostitution
what did Lombroso’s work centre around?
the idea that criminals has distinguishing physical features which originated from a more primitive stage of development.
they were less civilised and had more in common with evolutionary ancestors than people in the 1870’s. For that reason, he saw them as wilder and not suited to the culture and society in the late 1800’s.
what were some of the atavistic features Lombroso identified?
Heavy brow
Large strong jaw
Large ears
Extra nipples or extra fingers/toes
what implications does Lombroso’s theory have for the criminal justice system?
Lombroso argued that criminals were not to blame for their activities as their behaviour was determined by their physiology.
This had implications for the criminal justice system as the assumption by the legal system was that they chose to act the way they did, whereas Lombroso was suggesting the opposite.
what is a strength of the atavistic form (contribution to the science of criminology)?
Point: Lombroso contributed significantly to criminology by introducing scientific methods to the study of crime.
Evidence: He moved beyond the classical school, which viewed crime as a free-will choice, and instead used empirical observation and detailed measurement.
Explanation: Lombroso's work marked a shift towards understanding crime through biology and environment, advocating for a humane view of criminal behavior.
Link: Despite criticisms of his methods, Lombroso’s key achievement was establishing the possibility of a scientific approach to understanding crime.
what is an issue with Lombroso method’s?
Point: A major weakness in Lombroso’s research was the lack of adequate controls.
Evidence: He only studied prisoners without comparing them to non-prisoners with similar characteristics. Charles Goring addressed this flaw in 1913 by comparing 3,000 convicts with non-convicts and found no significant differences other than slight stature.
Explanation: The absence of controls in Lombroso’s studies undermines the validity of his conclusions.
Link: This flaw in his methodology challenges the reliability of Lombroso's findings.
how are Lombroso’s method’s gender bias?
Point: Lombroso’s theories were inherently gender-biased, as they reflected outdated views on women’s evolution.
Evidence: He claimed that women were naturally less intelligent, insensitive to pain, and less likely to commit crimes unless they possessed masculine traits, turning them into "monsters."
Explanation: These ideas reflect Victorian-era stereotypes rather than scientific evidence, undermining the credibility of his theories on female criminality.
Link: Lombroso’s gender bias highlights the limitations of his work as it relied more on societal prejudice than empirical research.
what is the support somatotypes?
Point: There is limited evidence supporting Lombroso’s link between body type and criminality.
Evidence: Later researchers like Sheldon and Glueck found correlations between certain body types (e.g., mesomorphs) and delinquency, but these studies had methodological issues and lacked causal evidence.
Explanation: The theory that body type determines criminality is unsupported by robust research, as differences in delinquent groups could result from external factors rather than innate traits.
Link: Lombroso’s focus on physical characteristics has been largely discredited due to the lack of reliable evidence.
what are genetic explanations?
the likelihood of behaving in a particular way is determined by a person’s genetic make up
what are neural explanations?
involve areas of the brain and nervous system and the action of chemical messengers in the brain known as neurotransmitters in controlling behaviour
what is the significance of genetic explanations in criminal behaviour?
Genes may predispose individuals to criminal behaviour.
Twin studies show higher concordance for criminal behaviour identical twins (MZ) than in fraternal twins (DZ).
Example: Adrian Raine (1993) found 52% concordance for MZ twins compared to 21% for DZ twins.
what are the two genes that may lead to criminal behaviour?
MAOA and CDH13
what is the importance of MAOA in criminal behaviour?
Example: Stephen Mobley's case for avoiding the death penalty due to genetic predisposition.
Brunner et al. (1993) -> study on 28 Dutch family members with histories of impulsive, violent behaviour -> found that these men shared a gene leading to abnormally low levels of MAOA.
what is the importance of Cadherin 13 (CDH13)?
Jari Tiihonen et al. (2015) studied 900 offenders -> found low MAOA activity and low CDH13 gene activity linked to violent crime + estimated 5-10% of violent crime in Finland due to abnormalities in MAOA and CDH13 genes.
how is the diathesis stress model influential?
Current thinking includes epigenetics. → genes are switched off by epigenomes
Environmental factors (e.g.: maltreatment in childhood) influence gene expression.
what did Caspi et al (2002) find that supports this?
Longitudinal study in New Zealand -> Followed 1,000 from when they were babies in the 1970s. +Assessed antisocial behavior at age 26.
12% of men with low MAOA genes experienced maltreatment but were responsible for 44% of violent crimes
why was it thought that there could be neural explanations for criminality?
Many criminals report having some form of brain injury -> Harmon (2012): ~8.5% of US population have had brain injuries in comparison to 60% of US prisoners -> brain differences may be due to nurture (brain being damaged) or nurture (inherited)
what two areas of the brain are associated with criminality?
limbic system
prefrontal cortex
what is the influence of the limbic system in criminal behaviour?
a set of subcortical structures, such as the thalamus and the amygdala, linked to emotion/motivation.
In another study Raine et al. (1997) studied murderers found not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). Compared with matched controls, they found abnormal asymmetries in limbic system of the murderers, especially the amygdala -> reduced activity on the left and increased activity on the right.
what are the two neurotransmitters associated with criminal behaviour?
serotonin and noradrenaline
how can serotonin lead to criminal behaviour?
Researchers (e.g. Seo et al., 2008) suggest that low levels of serotonin may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression/criminal behaviour.
Low levels mean lack of inhibition of impulsive aggressive urges (by prefrontal cortex) + Dopamine hyperactivity may enhance effect.
how can noradrenaline lead to criminal behaviour?
Both very high/very low levels are associated with aggression/violence/criminality (Wright et al., 2015).
High levels of noradrenaline associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system/fight-or-flight, thus linked to aggression. Noradrenaline also helps people react to perceived threats, so low levels reduce this ability.
what is a strength of genetic explanations (evidence from adoption studies)?
Inheritance plays a significant role in offending behavior.
Evidence: Adoption studies (e.g., Crowe, 1972) found that children with biological parents who were criminals had a higher likelihood of offending than those whose biological parents were not criminals. For example, adoptees with a criminal biological parent had a 50% risk compared to only 5% in those without.
Explanation: This highlights that genetics could be more influential than environmental factors in predisposing individuals to criminality.
Link: Genetic inheritance appears to be a significant factor influencing criminal behavior
what is an issue with genetic explanations (can’t account for non-violent behaviour)?
Genetic and neural explanations struggle to account for non-violent crimes.
Evidence: Research has focused on violent crimes (e.g., aggression, psychopathy) rather than non-violent offenses like theft or fraud. Biological explanations typically relate to behaviors linked to aggression or empathy deficits.
Explanation: These findings suggest that genetics alone cannot explain non-violent crimes, as offending behavior is influenced by complex interactions between biology and environment.
Link: Non-violent crimes are not easily explained by genetic or neural factors, pointing to the importance of social and environmental influences.
what is an issue with genetic explanations (deterministic explanations have limitations)?
Deterministic explanations have limitations.
Evidence: Genetic determinism suggests genes dictate behavior, but studies like Tiihonen et al. show only a minority with the "criminal gene" become offenders. Environmental factors, such as upbringing, also play a role, as seen in studies by Caspi et al.
Explanation: While genes may increase predisposition, they cannot fully determine criminal behavior. Environmental factors and personal agency remain crucial.
Link: Genetic determinism oversimplifies criminality and does not account for the role of environment or choice.
what is an issue with neural explanations (raise concerns about causation rather than correlation)?
Neural explanations raise concerns about causation versus correlation.
Evidence: Abnormal neurotransmitter levels are associated with criminality, but it is unclear whether they cause offending or are a byproduct of other factors (e.g., risky behavior leading to head injuries).
Explanation: Neural abnormalities may indicate an association with crime but are not definitive evidence of causation, limiting their explanatory power.
Link: Correlation between neural factors and crime does not prove causation, suggesting a need for caution in interpreting such data.
what is a strength of neural explanations (could inform treatment options)?
Neural research could inform treatment approaches.
Evidence: Low serotonin levels are linked to aggression, and altering diets to increase serotonin (e.g., avoiding artificial sweeteners) could reduce aggression.
Explanation: If neurotransmitter levels influence criminal behavior, treatment through dietary or medical intervention could help manage aggression in offenders.
Link: Research into neural factors has practical applications, offering potential for rehabilitation strategies.
what is an issue with neural explanations (current research lacks generalisability)?
Current research focuses heavily on aggression and lacks generalizability.
Evidence: Studies on neurotransmitters often examine aggression in animals rather than human offending (e.g., Curran and Renzetti, 2001), limiting the validity of findings.
Explanation: This creates issues for generalizing results to broader criminal behavior, particularly non-violent crimes.
Link: Current neural research is limited in scope and does not provide a comprehensive explanation for all types of offending.
who developed the theory of personality?
Eysenck (1967)
what was Eysenck’s theory of personality based on?
the idea that character traits tend to cluster along three dimensions
what are the three dimensions?
extraversion-introversion
neuroticism-stability
psychoticism-normality
what is extraversion-introversion?
extraverts are characterised as outgoing, having positive emotions, but may get bored easily
what is neuroticism-stability?
neuroticism is the tendency to to experience negative emotional states rather than positive emotional states
what is psychoticism-normality?
psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal, lacking in empathy and generally not concerned about the welfare of other people
how are these dimensions distributed?
normally - we would expect about 68% of the population to fall within one standard deviation from the mean
what personality test did Eysenck create?
Eysenck personality questionnaire
what did Eysenck say about biological basis?
each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate - he claimed that 67% of the variance for the traits is due to genetic factors
what is the biological basis of extraversion?
determined by the overall level of arousal in a person’s nervous system - a person who is under-aroused requires more stimulation, whereas an over-aroused person does not
seek external stimulation to increase their cortical arousal - are innately over-aroused and thus seek to reduce or avoid stimulation
what is the biological basis of neuroticism?
determined by the level of stability in the sympathetic nervous system - how much a person responds in situations of threat
a neurotic person is someone who is slightly unstable and reacts/gets easily upset quickly
at the opposite end of thus dimension the ‘stable’ personality has a more unreactive nervous system → calm under pressure
what is the biological basis for psychoticism?
has been related to higher levels of testosterone, which means that men are mire likely to be found at this end of the spectrum
what is the link between personality and criminal behaviour?
can be explained in terms of arousal - extraverts seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activities
neurotics are unstable and are therefore prone to over-react to situations of threat, which would explain some criminal activity
psychoticism - linked to criminality as inviduals are aggressive and lack empathy
how else did Eysenck explain criminality?
in terms of the outcome between innate personality and socialisation - a person is born with certain personality traits, but interaction with the environment is key in the development of criminality
where did Eysenck say this can particularly be seen?
in conditioning → in a normal person, wrongdoing is avoided because of previous punishment - when a person does something wrong they are punished which reduces the likelihood that behaviour is repeated
who did Eysenck claim is less easily conditioned?
people who are high in extraversion and neuroticism were less easily conditioned and therefore they do not learn to avoid anti-social behaviour
what is a strength of Eysenck’s theory (evidence of a genetic basis)?
Point: There is evidence that personality traits have a genetic basis.
Evidence: Research by Zuckerman (1987) found a higher correlation for identical (MZ) twins compared to non-identical (DZ) twins in traits like neuroticism and extraversion. For neuroticism, the correlation for MZ twins was +0.52, whereas for DZ twins, it was +0.24.
Explanation: This suggests that genetic factors play a significant role in personality traits, though the genetic influence might not be as strong as previously claimed by Eysenck (+0.50 correlation indicates 40% of traits are genetic). Some results may be inflated due to MZ twins having more similar environments.
Link: This demonstrates that genetic components contribute to personality, though correlations may not be as high as originally suggested.
