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urban areas
towns or cities with suburbs, population more than 2500
rural area
population less than 2500
a country’s degree of urbanization
the percentage of its population living in an urban area; measured by the ratio of urban to total population
megacities
cities that have more than 10mil people; increasing around the world
hypercities
more than 20mil people; e.g. tokyo, japan
ecocity
a sustainable city designed to minimize ecological impact, integrating green spaces and efficient resource use; e.g. curitiba, brazil
natural increase
the growth of a population resulting from the excess of births over deaths
immigration
the movement of people into a country or region, contributing to population growth; usually rural to urban
why do people migrate to urban areas?
better job opportunities, access to education, improved healthcare, and enhanced living standards
why do people migrate away from rural areas?
poverty, lack of land, declining agricultural work, famine, war
environmental benefits of urbanisation
preservation of biodiversity, increased economic feasibility of recycling, and resource efficiency, reduced per capita energy consumption
city climate
warmer, rainier, foggier, cloudier than suburbs/rural areas
impervious surfaces
surfaces from urban development that lead to increased runoff and reduced groundwater recharge; increased risk of flooding
urban heat island
a phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than their rural surroundings due to human activities and infrastructure (e.g. cars, factories, furnaces); traps pollutants creating a dust dome
what is the most widespread occupational hazard in the US?
noise pollution, apparently?
alternative: exposure to hazardous materials
urban sprawl
when urban development slowly spreads into nearby rural areas; low population density, increased dependence of automobiles (highway network, cheap gas), plentiful land; threatens nearby ecosystems and natural habitats
heavy rail
operates on tunnels or elevated tracks; good for travelling between cities
suburban/regional trains
connect the central city with surrounding areas
light rail/trams
modern versions of streetcars; good for travelling short distances within a city
land-use planning often encourages what kind of growth?
economic & population growth; 90% of govt revenue comes from property taxes
earth capital
aka natural resources, natural capital, ecological capital
manufactured capital
goods made from the earth
human capital
people’s physical/mental talents, commodified (used for profit)
pure command economic system
centrally planned economy; all decisions are made by the govt (aka communism)
pure market economy
all decisions are made by the iNviSiBLe hAnD of the market (buyer/seller interactions; aka pure capitalism
gdp
gross domestic product; measures economic growth
ecological sustainable development
results in humans being below the carrying capacity of existing natural capital
internal costs
direct costs incurred by seller and buyer
external costs
harmful social effects of producing and using an economic good that is not included in market price (cost to the buyer)
full-cost pricing
includes internal and short- or long-term external costs
statutory laws
developed and passed by legislative bodies
administrative laws
rules/regulations related to the implementation and interpretation of statutory laws
common law
a body of unwritten rules & principles derived from past legislative decisions; legislative understandings almost purely based on precedent
green peace
funnels funds to local activists and projects
environmental defence fund
focuses on legal actions regarding environmental issues
organisations that focus on specific economic/environmental issues
zero population growth, nature conservancy, world wildlife fund
worldwatch institute
focuses on education and research
republican party
encourages market-based solutions; tries to get the economy and the market to stabilise itself
democratic party
more green technology, reducing climate change, more green jobs
libertarian party
campaigns for the private ownership of land and animals
green party
…well, green; campaigns for sustainability
conservation easement
legal agreement between a landowner and an organization (i.e. the govt) that limits the use of a property to protect its conservation value; aka conservation agreement
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