ARCH 240: Architecture History and Theory I - Quizlet 2

Rome 01: Etruscans

An ancient people who developed a distinctive culture in north-central Italy (Tuscany) during the first millennium BCE, heavily influencing Roman civilization through art, architecture, and customs

Rome 01: Etruscan Origins

Believed to have migrated from Asia Minor around 1200 BCE after the fall of the Hittites; their language contained both Indo-European and non-Indo-European elements

Rome 01: Etruscan Influences

Their culture blended elements from Greece, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, the Hittites, Minoans, and Mycenaeans, resulting in a richly syncretic civilization

Rome 01: Etruscan Language and Writing

Written in a script derived from Greek; most surviving texts are funerary inscriptions that reveal limited information about society

Rome 01: Etruscan Religion

Focused on providing goods for the afterlife, similar to Egyptian beliefs, and included practices like reading omens from animal entrails, derived from Babylonia and Assyria

Rome 01: Etruscan Economy

Based on agriculture and international trade, especially in metals—importing tin from Britain and silver from Spain, and producing iron and copper locally

Rome 01: Etruscan Urban Expansion

By the 8th century BCE, their culture extended from the Po River in the north to Pompeii in the south, encompassing numerous independent city-states

Rome 01: Marzabotto

An Etruscan city near Bologna with a grid plan of perpendicular streets—an early example of orthogonal urban design that influenced Roman military camps (castra)

Rome 01: Cardo and Decumanus

Main north-south (cardo) and east-west (decumanus) streets in Roman city planning, derived from Etruscan urban models

Rome 01: Etruscan Temples

Adapted from Greek prototypes but featured a high podium, front-facing stairs, and a tripartite (three-part) cella oriented southward

Rome 01: Tuscan Order

A simplified version of the Doric order used by the Etruscans—unfluted columns, no sculpted frieze, and a more horizontal emphasis

Rome 01: Etruscan Temple Materials

Columns and roofs made of wood; walls of unbaked brick; terracotta used for roof tiles, pediment sculpture, and ornamentation

Rome 01: Etruscan Architectural Legacy

Although few structures survived, tombs and terracotta fragments reveal much about Etruscan design, influencing later Roman architecture.

Rome 01: Tombs at Cerveteri

Rock-cut tombs carved from tufa, organized around a central atrium-like court, imitating domestic architecture with carved furnishings and details

Rome 01: Etruscan Housing

Knowledge of Etruscan homes comes mainly from tombs and urns shaped like miniature dwellings, which replicate domestic layouts and furniture.

Rome 01: Arch of Augustus (Perugia)

Monumental Etruscan gateway featuring an arch of voussoirs with Doric-inspired triglyphs and metopes, Ionic pilasters, and shields—demonstrating creative adaptation of Greek motifs

Rome 01: Etruscans used what architectural element that later influenced the Romans?

Arches and Vaults - Romans later would forge a coherent and powerful architectural style of their own by employing the arch and vault for structure and using the orders largely as decoration

Rome 01: What is the Cloaca Maxima?

A massive drainage trench begun by Etruscan builders to dry the marshes around the Tiber River—later became Rome's main sewer

Rome 01: Tarquin Kings

Etruscan royal family that ruled Rome from 616-510 BCE, ending with their overthrow and the establishment of the Roman Republic

Roem 01: Founding of Rome

According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BCE by Romulus and Remus on the Tiber's hills, later ruled by Etruscan kings before becoming a republic

Rome 01: Etruscan Influence of Rome

Etruscan art, architecture, and customs—such as chariot racing and gladiatorial games—became integral to Roman society

Rome 01: Early Roman Civilization

Developed contemporaneously with the Greeks, Etruscans, and later Egyptian dynasties; unlike them, Rome grew in power into the first and second centuries CE

Rome 01: Roman Empire Expansion

Rome absorbed the Etruscans, Greeks, Egyptians, and other peoples, forming an empire with a unified and distinctive architectural style

Rome 01: Influences on Roman Architecture

Drew heavily from Etruscan and Greek traditions, yet evolved into a largely original and innovative architectural form

Rome 01: Roman Character

Romans were materialistic and pragmatic but also family-oriented, skilled lawmakers, administrators, and exceptional builders

Rome 01: Roman Brutality in Context

Practices like gladiatorial games and crucifixion reflected the harsh norms of the ancient world rather than uniquely Roman cruelty

Rome 01: Roman Republic

Established after the monarchy, governed by a senate of noble families and elected magistrates (consuls)

Rome 01: Patricians and Plebs

Patricians were the aristocratic class; plebs were free common citizens—both struggled for political representation and power

Rome 01: Julius Caesar

Military leader who assumed dictatorial control during the Republic's crisis; his assassination marked the end of the Republic

Rome 01: Augustus Caesar

First Roman Emperor (27 BCE), whose reign began the Roman Empire and ushered in major architectural and administrative reforms

Rome 01: Architecture of the Empire

Characterized by large-scale, efficient, and economical construction methods developed to meet the needs of the expanding Empire

Rome 01: Vitruvius

Roman architect and engineer who wrote The Ten Books of Architecture in the late first century BCE, dedicated to Emperor Augustus

Rome 01: The ten books of architecture

The only surviving architectural treatise from antiquity; covers design, city planning, engineering, and machiner

Rome 01: Vitruvius's Style and Legacy

Although not a skilled writer, his work has been foundational for understanding Roman architecture and inspired Renaissance architects

Rome 01: Virtruvian Principles of the Architect

Architects should master both theory and practice—manual skill must be supported by intellectual knowledge and proportion

Rome 01: Vitruvius's Definition of Practice and Theory

Practice is the regular exercise of building with materials as designed; theory is the ability to explain and demonstrate design principles

Rome 01: What is Vitruvius's definiton of the ideal architect?

One who combines manual skill and scholarly knowledge—"armed at all points"—achieving both competence and authority

Rome 01: Roman Engineering Approach

Romans compartmentalized activities and built massive interior and exterior spaces using advanced engineering solutions to address practical needs of daily life

Rome 01: Roman Structural Innovation

Relied on structural elements that worked in compression—the arch, vault, and dome—allowing for larger, more stable spaces than post-and-lintel systems

Rome 01: True Arch

Constructed with voussoirs (wedge-shaped stones) set around a curved form; requires temporary centering until the keystone is placed

Rome 01: Corbeled Arch

Made by overlapping stones that gradually project inward; stable during construction but not a true curved arch

Rome 01: Vault

Formed when an arch is extended along its axis, creating a tunnel-like structure that distributes loads efficiently in compression - The earliest Roman vaults were built for utilitarian

structures

Rome 01: Dome

Produced when an arch is rotated around its center, forming a hemispherical shell capable of enclosing large areas

Rome 01: Compression vs. Tension in Stone

Stone performs well under compression but poorly under tension; arches and vaults allowed wider spans without cracking

Rome 01: Thrust in Vaulted Construction

Vaults push outward as well as downward; required thick supporting walls or piers to counteract lateral thrust

Rome 01: Evolution of the Cloaca Maxima

Originally an Etruscan drainage trench; later vaulted with stone in the mid-first century BCE and still functions as Rome's main sewer

Rome 01: Roman Aqueducts

Gravity-fed systems transporting clean water from distant sources to urban centers using elevated arched conduits

Rome 01: Aqua Appia (312 BCE)

Rome's first aqueduct, marking the beginning of large-scale Roman hydraulic engineering

Rome 01: Aqua Claudia (38 CE)

Major aqueduct that carried water 45 miles from Tivoli to Rome; featured monumental masonry arches over 100 feet high

Rome 01: Pont du Gard (20-16 BCE)

Aqueduct near Nîmes, France; built of unmortared opus quadratum masonry, spanning 882 feet and rising 160 feet above the Gard River valley

Rome 01: Pont du Gard Design Features

Three tiers of semicircular arches, rhythmic spacing, projecting stones for scaffolding support, and a waterproofed water channel at the top.

Rome 01: Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia

(ca. 80 BCE, Praeneste/Palestrina) A vast hillside complex influenced by Hellenistic design, combining terraces, stoas, ramps, and stairs culminating in a circular Corinthian temple

Rome 01: Opus Quadratum

Masonry technique using large, precisely cut stone blocks without mortar, seen in structures like the Pont du Gard

Rome 01: Romano-Hellenistic Design

Roman adaptation of Hellenistic spatial composition using terraces, colonnades, and axial symmetry to create unified architectural experiences

Rome 01: Temple of Diana, Nimes (ca. 80 CE)

Barrel-vaulted structure built of ashlar masonry, illustrating the transition from costly cut-stone methods to more efficient concrete construction

Rome 01: Pozzolana

Volcanic ash found near Pozzuoli; when mixed with lime and water, it forms hydraulic cement that hardens even underwater—basis for Roman concrete

Rome 01: Roman Concrete (Opus Caementicium)

Mixture of pozzolana, lime, rubble, and water; strong, durable, and adaptable, enabling large-scale, curved, and complex forms

Rome 01: Decorative Finishes in Roman Architecture

Because concrete walls were unattractive, Romans covered them with stucco, mosaic tiles, or marble veneer

Rome 01: Opus Incertum

Early Roman wall technique using irregular stones facing a concrete core

Rome 01: Opus Reticulatum

Mid-Republican wall facing of pyramid-shaped stones with square faces arranged in a net-like pattern for a regular appearance

Rome 01: Opus Testaceum

Imperial-era technique (after 37 BCE) using thin, triangular bricks as concrete facing; brick stamps help date Roman structures

Rome 01: Opus Listatum

Later wall technique using alternating layers of stone rubble and horizontal brick courses for strength and leveling

Rome 01: Roman Concrete Advantages

Provided strength, durability, and economy, enabling rapid construction of monumental architecture by the 1st century CE

Rome 01: City Planning in Athens and Rome

Both cities grew organically without an overall plan, while their colonial cities typically followed orthogonal (grid-based) layouts

Rome 01: Greek and Roman Colonial Cities

Colonial settlements were often laid out with regular, orthogonal plans, showing systematic planning unlike their capitals

Rome 01: The Founding of Pompeii

Originally a Greek city from the 6th century BCE; later inhabited by Etruscans, Samnites, and then Romans

Rome 01: Destruction of Pompeii

Buried in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE after an earlier earthquake in 62 CE; preserved until excavations began in 1748

Rome 01: Population and Layour of Pompeii

Around 20,000 residents lived within 160 acres enclosed by oval walls and an irregular grid adapted to the terrain

Rome 01: Pompeii Forum

The civic and religious heart of the city; rectangular (510 × 125 ft), surrounded by colonnades on three sides, and dominated by the Capitolium on the north

Rome 01: Public Buildings in Pompeii

Included the basilica, macellum (market), comitium (election area), Eumachia building, temples, theaters, baths, and an amphitheate

Rome 01: Pompeii Basilica

A building that served legal, commercial, and social functions; similar to the Greek stoa but enclosed

Rome 01: Religious Diversity in Pompeii

Nine temples honored Greek, Roman, and oriental gods such as Isis and Bacchus, reflecting varied religious beliefs

Rome 01: Roman Castra

Military garrison towns used to secure territories and spread Roman civilization; the basis for many later city plans

Rome 01: Standard Roman City Plan

Rectangular grid with two main streets—the cardo (north-south) and decumanus (east-west)—intersecting at the forum

Rome 01: Features of a Roman City

City walls enclosed public buildings, residential blocks, markets, and baths; streets could be numbered for easy navigation

Rome 01: Legacy of Roman Urban Planning

Many European cities, such as Florence, Bologna, Cirencester, and Trier, preserve the Roman grid pattern

Rome 01: Founding of Timgad (Algeria)

Established by Emperor Trajan in 100 CE for Roman veterans; a prime example of the Roman grid plan

Rome 01: Timgad Layout

Square city with intersecting cardo and decumanus; forum and theater near the center; entrances framed by triumphal arches

Rome 01: Timgad Expansion

Population reached about 15,000; extramural suburbs, markets, and baths grew outside the walls, departing from the strict grid plan

Rome 01: Forum Romanum

Original civic heart of Rome at the base of the Capitoline Hill; mixed functions of commerce, government, law, and religion

Rome 01: Imperial Fora

A series of new forums built to relieve congestion—Forum of Caesar, Forum of Augustus, and others—culminating in Trajan's Forum

Rome 01: Forum of Trajan (ca. 100-114 CE)

Designed by Apollodorus of Damascus; the largest forum, financed by Dacian war spoils, and highly symmetrical

Rome 01: Features of Trajan's Forum

Included a vast colonnaded court, Basilica Ulpia, Trajan's Column, two libraries (Greek and Latin), and a temple to Trajan and his wife

Rome 01: Trajan's Column

Nearly 100 ft tall, with a spiral frieze depicting Dacian Wars; flanked by libraries for viewing the relief

Rome 01: Trajan's Markets

Built into the Quirinale hillside behind the forum; contained over 150 brick-faced concrete shops and offices

Rome 01: Market Hall Structure

Two-story hall with six groin vaults supported by piers and flying buttresses—an early example of complex Roman engineering

Rome 01: Purpose of Roman Arches

Freestanding monuments celebrating military victories; marked city entrances and civic pride

Rome 01: Arch Septimius Severus (203 CE)

Triple arch in the Roman Forum commemorating military victories

Rome 01: Arch of Constantine (315 CE)

Larger triple arch near the Colosseum, decorated with reliefs reused from earlier monuments

Rome 01: Legacy of the Triumphal Arch

The Roman triumphal arch influenced later architecture—revived in Carolingian, Romanesque, Renaissance, and modern designs

Rome 01: Roman Public Building Types

The Romans developed the basilica (assembly hall), baths (bathing and recreation complex), and theater/amphitheater (public entertainment) — each influencing later architecture

Rome 01: Function of the Roman Basilica

Large public assembly hall used for law courts and civic business; also social and commercial gathering place

Rome 01: Meaning of "Basilica"

From Greek basilikē stoa meaning "king's hall."

Rome 01: Basilica vs. Greek Stoa

The basilica's colonnades define an interior longitudinal space, while stoas have exterior colonnades

Rome 01: Pompeii Basilica (ca. 100 BCE)

Oldest known Roman basilica; located on the forum's southwest corner; used for legal and social activities

Rome 01: Layout of the Pompeii Bacilica

Rectangular plan with a tribunal at one end; entered mainly from the short side; covered by a wooden gable roof

Rome 01: Basilica Ulpia (Trajan's Forum)

Built ca. 100 CE; 200 × 400 ft with double colonnades, clerestory windows, apses, and luxurious materials from Dacia's tribute

Rome 01: Basilica Ulpia Materials and Decoration

Marble floors/walls, bronze-gilded ceilings, and Egyptian granite columns; symbol of imperial grandeur and justice

Rome 01: The Basilica's Legacy

The basilica plan became the model for Early Christian church architecture

Rome 01: Basilica Nova (Maxentius & Constantine, 307-315 CE)

Massive vaulted basilica with three groin vaults over the nave and barrel vaults along the sides; first basilica using concrete vaulting instead of timber roofs