ALL urban paper 1 (notes and case studies)

suburbanisation - Newcastle causes, affects on inner/outer city

causes: improved communication networks, local tax and land price increase meant more affordable and demanding homes

effects inner city - air pollution from congestion, more people wealthy outsides, a decline int he central city / donuts city

effects outer city - the green belt has had to be stretched, new development schemes e.g. 400m away from bus stop, communities split from new people

counter urbanisation - Sti Ives. causes, effect, adv dis

background - small rural town 100km from London, has a Victorian style look

causes - many people want a rural lifestyle close to large cities, the train ticket is cheaper than living in london (£3,200), the appeal of housing.

adv: more population means more tax and importance to the Uk, more designer shops have arrived

dis: house priced doubled in 14 years, split between young families and older generation, schools are full, housing developers are difficult to manage

Urban resurgance: London docklands L context, adv dis

context:

• a former economical zone lost with the size of ships, becoming a derelict area

• LDDC introduces to aid people

adv:

• 24,00 new homes

• new transport and bike lanes in 1987

dis:

• conflict between locals and new people due to introduction of premium apartments

• many locals forced out due to high prices

enterprise zone - Merry hill: context, adv dis

context

• the development created 217 stores

• 4,000 jobs

adv:

• allowed for the regeneration fo a derelict area, creating economic opportunities in the Midlands

dis:

• many people who had industrial skills were not needed, leading to poverty and people moving away

city challenge: hulme: context causes, consequences

context: a need for homes for the increasing population meant housing was needed, this rows of stacked flats where cheaply made to give people homes  

causes:

• Insulation issues due to cheap materials  

• The poor design lead to less efficient homes, which was a difficult issue during the oil crisis  

consequences:

• You were 30X more likely to be killed  

• Many of the homes became council housing, bringing in the poorest of households  

• The crime and drug use was common  

Contrasting Urban form: LA

• LA is mostly known for it’s history of holywood, this brings in the rich actors to live near or in LA

• this leads to the creation of large, open rich neighbourhoods to suit the needs of actors and celebrities who want to afford luxury

• This history had lead to mass tourism over the years, leading to the opening of Disneyland in 1955

  • the economic state - donut city, with rough areas and ganfs in the middle and more economic areas around the center

contrasting urban form: Mumbai

• Mumbai is home to Bollywood, large Indain movies

• Economic hub of India, with large tech companies such as TATA

• there are higher numbers of povertiy due to the unsustainable growth

• low tax means less supporgt and growth for people’s aid

• dialy life is unhealthy due to smoke pollution and transport incidents

  • 1000 new migrants a day

London diverse backgrounds: Harrow and Tower Hamlets

Harrow:

• languages - Tamil, Polish, Somalian

• birthplaces - Kenya, Somalia

• population density - high density

• life expectancy - above average

Tower Hamlets:

• language - Polish, German

• birthdplace - USA and Germany

• population density - more cramped and above average

• life expectancy: average

Air pollution - Beijing

issues:

• extreme temperatures (-20 in winter and 26 in Summer)

• 57% (over half) of fuel from coal

• 6 million cars on the road

• 2008 Olympics, Olympians did not want to compete

Solutions:

• transitioning away from coal to renewable and natural gas

• introducing a car lottery

  • making sure a car is not used for at least 1 day a week

river restoration (removing hard engineering and returning to nature)- Darlington

• 1850 to 1945, the river was straightned for industrial purposes

• made the river polluted with sewer water and leakages

• 1995, a plan to change the are into an attractive wetland environment, thriving with life was made

  • it was done to reduce the flood risk, treat water issues and increase biodiversity in Darlington

river conservation (planting wildlife) blue loop, Sheffield

• rive rused for industrial purposes left it dirty and buildings near in derelict states

• until the 1992 Sheffield development co-operation was formed

  • it aimed to rejuvenate the area for walking, encourage biodiversity and creating a community to aid the river

SUDS, Lamb Drove

a Euroean project to prove how SUDS can be used in new housing developments

they used:

• water butts

• permeable surfaces

• filter strips

adv:

• reduced metal found in the water

• cost effective as maintenance was 10% less

• created a mark-up due to USP

dis:

• risks when it comes to large dips for SUDS cna be dangerous for people (especially children)

• lower density of housing can be made

• need specialised architects and builders who know waht to do

microclimate

a climate in a small or restricted area, especially when it differs to the surrounding areas.

Urban heat island effect

the increased temperature in urban areas compared to surrounding rural areas.

Albdedo effect

the reflectivity of certain services:

black surfaces such as roads and black buildings have low albedo

white surfaces have high albedo

absolute humidity

the mass of water vapour in a given volume of air, regardless of temp

relative humidity

a percentage / ratio of the actual amount of water vapour that is in the air.

different between relative and total humidity

relative - the percentage of water vapur

total - the quantity in the water

venturi effect

two buildings with a gap between them causing a sharp air wind speed

the formation of thunderstorms

• ground surface heats and air rises

• the air becomes unstable and causes of a ‘chimney’ of condensed air

• causes ice crystals and they fall as precipitation

• this causes electric charges of the positive crystals

  • causing thunder and lighting

downdraught effect

tall buildings cause the wind to mostly go down (some go up) and this air picks up speed and causes higher wind speeds.

fog

when visibility is less than 1000m and occurs when air colls to it’s dew point, causing invisible water vapour to condense around microscopic particles such as dust or salt

radiation fog

1. caused when there is cooling of land by thermal radiation cooling the close to the surface

2. the cooling reduces the ability to hold moisture and causes the dew point to be reached easier, causing fog

advection fog

caused by warm moist air blowing over a colder area, causing air to reach lower dew point.

Smog

a mixture of smoke and fog which occurs when smoke particulates and sulphur dioxide mix with fog.

photo chemical smog

occurs in drier areas and forms due to fossil fuels, and borning trees and organic waste

particle pollution

pollution which consists of particles suspended. these particles come from natural and human processes

smoke controlled areas: def adv dis

an areas where it is offence to emit smoke from a chimney, normally resulting in a fine.

adv: stops the emissions of gas within urban areas, better air quality, reduces risk of chimney fires

dis: the max offence charge is £1,000 meaning large businesses are mostly unaffected

clean air act: def adv dis:

the clean air act was brought in 1956 and dealt with smog issues, making smog contol areas where smoke is not allowed in domestic properties

adv: improving public health and environmental impact is reduced

dis: may lead to exportation from abroad, worsening the carbon footprint of products and reducing the UK’s economy

vehicle control: def adv dis:

introducing schemes to reduce cars in busy areas, whether that be from the design of cities reducing roads, to low emission zones being introduced

adv: encourages people to have cleaner habits in the way they commute

dis: leads to traffic on the outskirts of the city, with city expansion being an issue

vechile emissions: def adv dis:

car manufacturers have been made to make efficient fuel-burning engines

adv: reduces the impact of vechiles on the road and lowers fuel usage and price

dis: these new standards only apply to new cars, companies can still find ways around the emissions tests e.g. Volkswagen cars in diesel gate and the test showing 40X less emissions than what they did on the road

public transport: def adv dis:

introducing more public transport schemes such as bus and train stations and bike paths

adv: reduces traffic, reduces people’s carbon footprint getting to work

dis: can lead to overcrowding of services, can often be unreliable

industry zoning

forcing businesses to emit their pollutants above the immersion layer

adv: decreases fog and smoke, decreasing health issues and keeps businesses still in the city

dis: can have a negative look on a city and the emissions are still being released

the urban water cycle - neame the levels:

source - reservoirs, lakes

water treatment - raw water must be treated with methods such as filtering and disinfection

water distribution - clean water is put into pipes and pumps, where it is transported

use - can be used in many ways such as cleaning, drinking and bathing

wastewater collection - taken back for treatment

wastewater treatment - the physical, chemical and biological treatment processes and discharged into sources

Natural levees: def adv dis:

embankments (turns in the river) are made of concrete and riverbed materials

adv: relatively low costs to maintain and have a nice natural look

dis: can easily be over topped by flash floods

diversion spillways: def adv dis:

emergency areas which are opened when there is flooding

adv: reduce the pressures on the main channel

dis: expensive and can disrupt ecosystems r

river channelisation: def adv dis:

straightening channels with concerete to reduce friction

adv: improved navigation and more efficient flooding

dis: expensive and destroys habitats. can lead to flooding at the bottom of rivers

afforestation: def adv dis:

planting trees to increase interception and reduce water runoff

adv: more natural approach and little construction needed

dis: community not happy, takes long time for them to grow

riverbank conservation: def adv dis:

planting bushes and trees to reduce erosion and roots which stabilise riverbanks

adv: low maintenance and disruption needed

dis: takes a long time and does not reduce major flood impact

floodplain zoning: def adv dis:

restricts land use to a floodplain, allowing it to get flooded

adv: avoids people from being flooded, reducing risk

dis: can be difficult to implement and requires assessment of land

river straightening: def adv dis:

cutting through meanders to create a straight channel

adv: improved navigation, easier maintenance, more space for urban land

dis: can increase floods downstream and can destroy habitats

river restoration definition

removing all hard engineering and adaptations to restore meanders, wetlands and floodplains. this leads to flood management being returned to nature

river conservation

planting vegetation to reduce lateral erosion and riverbank collapse. this can also include introducing native species and awareness to the public

River restoration study - Darlington

• the river was straightened in 1850 to accommodate industrialisation

• in the 70’s the lake was highly polluted with gas and sewer pipes

• in 1995 a plan was made to restore the area into an attractive wetland environment thriving with natural life

  • this was done to maintain biodiversity and reduce flood risks

river conservation study - Blue Loop Sheffield

• throughout the 1800’s, the river was used for industrial purposes such as cooling and exporting coal and goods

• this lead to the river becoming derelict, as well as the houses around the canal

• this was until 1992 when the Sheffield development co-operation helped to conserve the river Don and canal

• the aim was to: encourage biodiversity, create a community to help the river, reducing flood risk and making it a recreational area

SUDS definition

represent the ultimate in realistic yet environmentally friendly replication of natural drainage systems

SUDS: Swale

wide shallow drainage channels which collect and transport water

SUDS: permeable road and pavements

use of porous block paving and concrete

SUDS: infiltration trenches

bioretention basins

gravel / sand filtration beneath reed beds

SUDS: rain garden

shallow landscape despressions planted with flowers and shrubs

SUDS: green roof

SUDS: adv dis

adv: slow down water runoff, provide wildlife homes i urban areas, reduced flooding risk, prevents water pollution

dis: lowered profit when developing, increased maintenance, high initial costs

Case study: Lamb Drove, Cambourne

• this development was apart of a large scale project of introducing SUDS across Europe

• this one included introducing methods such as: permeable surfaces for drives, under drained swale, water butts and filter strips

• this lead to less metal in their water as well as maintenance being 10% less

  • however, it did lower profit’s for developers and concerns were made about exposed water

streategy: greener built environment. def adv dis:

initiatives to use energy and water more efficeintly as well as reducing waste in a more greener way

adv: can improve energy consumption in buildings, enhanced appeal of cities

dis: high initial costs, hard to change what is already implemented

strategy: planed expansion def adv dis

encouraging the conservation of historic buildings and green space.

adv: protects open spaces which act as carbon sinks, maintain hsitorical and tourism heritage.

dis: can be costly to maintain older buildings, restrictions on land use take a lot of time to gain

strategy: carbon neutral developments. def adv dis

building structures such as houses that produce as much energy as they need

adv: reduces impact on environment from all settlements, enhanced reputation

dis: can be challenging to maintain due to cost

strategy: economic opportunities. Adv dis

providing a range of economic opportunities outside of the fossil fuel department e.g. Quaternary sector

adv: can lead to a more sustainabel growth in demand and reduce reliance of fossil fuels

dis: can create economic inequalities due to loss of jobs needed

ecological footprint definition

the impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use fo natural resources

biocapacity definition

refers to the capacity of a given biologically productive area to generate an on-going supply of renewable resources and to absorb its spill ober wastes

ecological defecit and surplus definition

the difference between the bio capacity and ecological footprint tor a region or country

defecit: when the footrpints exceeds the capacity in the area

surplus: when the capacity exceeds the footrprints in the area

Suburbanisation definition

The process of population movement from the central area of cities towards the suburbs on the outskirts or rural-urban fringe, (cities to suburbs).

Counter-urbanisation definition

The movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas

Urban resurgence

Population movement from rural BACK to urban areas

Case study - Newcastle

causes - increase in communication means people don't need to live near areas such as London anymore

effects on inner city - inner city decline as richer people move away from the central areas into the suburbs, house prices become premium meaning high rise

Effects on outer city - green belt is pulled back to make space for housing, A scheme to make sure nobody is 400m away from a bus stop

decentralisation of government

the transfer of power and authority from higher to lower levels of the government / national to sub-national levels

decentralisation of retailing

retailers are moving their premises from CBD's to the outer suburbs of the city. this can cause the donut / polo affect, where the centre of cities is left in derelict, while the outskirts get all growth and wealth

Hiller's 3 steps of decentralisation

1. it started with the movement of superstores to outskirts.

2. next, it was large retail parks such as DIY stores

3. finally, it was large shopping centres being built e.g. merry hill

service economy def adv dis

when a country priotises providing services rather than goods adv: allows for economic growth from globalisation and allows for more tertiary jobs dis: the shutting of primary jobs has not been made up for yet, leaving more people unemployed due to itt.

urban policy Margaret Thatcher

she was the main ambassador for the service economy mindset of the UK, following in the USA's shoes (she liked them), this also included the growth of large, privatisation of regeneration schemes, with the hope of it 'trickling down to local schemes'

urban policy - John Major

a bidding scheme where local councils could bid on problems they want to fix

urban policy - Tomy Blair

more local decision being made on government redevelopment, allowed for the government ot send money for others to fix it

city challenge - hulme

rows of stacked flats were made in hulme, the poor production and design caused it to be a very poor housing area. this caused chaos as there was a high crime and drug use, makign it dangerous, as well as sitters getting hands on keys, causing a black market. you were 3x more likely to be killed in this area.

pre-industrial city

keeping it's traits, not being changed by modern urbanisation, having historical buildings and crafts as their functional areas e.g. York

modern city

little attention is spent on building aesthetics or ornate designs; improved transportation, multiple CBDs, and dispersal into the suburbs e.g. Birmingham

public transport oriented city

minimising the walk between housing areas and public transport. has railways over main roads and kepps things local e.g. Tokyo

African cities

a central CBD with sectors of activity out from that, and often a market sector or area adjacent to the CBD, nomrally high developed area next to derelict areas e.g. Nairobi

gentrified areas

An area of the inner city that has been regenerated by wealthier residents than would normally live there, bringing new life

fortress development

An urban area characterised by design with a high focus on security, such as the idea of 'defensible' space e.g. Beverly hills.

cultural and heritage corners

a cultural quarter to develop economic growth and revitalise local economy, normally done in derelict areas e.g. London with greener areas introduced and history activites.

postmodern western cities

More fragmented urban form with independent settlements, economies, societies and cultures. A greater emphasis on services, jobs in the Quaternary sector. and varied architecture Greater ethnic diversity but heightened economic, social and cultural inequalities.

Types of urban waste (name 3)

domestic - green and black bins commercial - hotels, stores, offices animal - crops, dead animals spoiled food institutional - needles from hospitals and waste from schools.

managing urban waste (name 3)

landfill incineration waste reduction schemes trade of waste

landfill adv dis

adv - helps store it in a inexpensive way dis - bad smell in local area, releases dangerous gases

incineration adv dis

adv - a good option do get rid of hazardous equipment e.g. needles dis - releases dangerous gases, needs lots of energy

waste reduction adv dis

adv - stops people throwing away items and takes little work from government councils dis - it may be cheaper to get a new one than repair it e.g. boiler or washing machine parts.

trade adv dis

adv - can help countries gain money which need it, as well as it can reduce waste in LIC's dis - there can be lack of regulation, leading to exploitation of materials, transporting long distances is bad for environment