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Introduction to anthropology and the aspects associated
What is Anthropology?
The study of humans and cultures around the globe and how theyāve evolved throughout time
How is anthropology different from other fields that study human beings?
Considered a holistic science
Studies non-Western societies from the past and present
Offers cross-cultural perspectives by comparing the customs of one society with others
Why is Franz Boas relevant to the field of anthropology?
He influenced anthropologists to approach the study as a holistic science and established the idea of cultural relativism
What is cultural relativism?
The idea that one society should not judge the customs of another society based on their own traditions and values; understand how that society functions and adapts through looking at their history, traditions, and values.
How does cultural relativism differ from ethnocentrism?
Cultural relativism = seeing all cultures as valuable and equal
Ethnocentrism = seeing your own culture as superior while others inferior or wrong; close-mindedness
Define culture
Customs, traditions, and/or values that are learned/passed down to future generations
Name the four fields of anthropology
Cultural = focuses on societiesā cultures
Archaeology = analyzes human behavior through material remains
Biological anthropology = observes human biological adaptations from past and present and development of human diversity
Linguistic anthropology = examines the multiple ways people communicate across the globe
Why are there four fields in anthropology?
They all coexist to answer lifeās key questions of our origins and evolutionary changes that affect how we live today
Why is anthropology considered a science?
It relies on the scientific method to make accurate predictions and offer credible explanations
What is the scientific method?
Method of finding out how nature works through making observations, asking questions, and testing ideas
What are the steps of the scientific method?
Start with a question
Develop a hypothesis
Test hypothesis
Collect data from test
Devise a conclusion
Contribute to a larger society
What are the characteristics of scientific research?
Hypothesis = a proposition that requires testing
Association = a relationship between variables; if one variable changes, the other must change
Theory = collective ideas that aid to explain something
Law = a statement of an observation of something that occurs everytime if certain conditions are met
THEORY VS LAW
Theory = a collection of ideas that were used to explain something
Law = a statement of fact; states how something works rather than why something works
Is evolution a theory or a law? Why?
Evolution is a theory because it contains numerous ideas that explain why we do what we do
What is evolution?
Transformation of species over time
What does natural selection do?
Selects traits that are the most adaptive to an organismās environment and passes down those traits to future generations
What is the goal of natural selection?
Strong fitness; success in surviving and reproduction to maintain variation
Define fitness
The ability to survive and reproduce in a given environment
Who established the idea of natural selection?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
What results in natural selection?
Competition between individual vs individual (self vs self)
What does Lamarckās inheritance of acquired characteristics state?
Physiological modifications produced by the organism get passed down to their offspring
Why is Lamarckās idea of inheritance of acquired characteristics incorrect?
Goes against basic principles of genetics and genetic variation
Traits are based on genetics that you inherit from your parents
Mutations are the only way a gene can change
Is evolution directed? Or is there an end goal?
There is no end goal. Evolution will always happen as we continue to change to adapt to our environment
Catastrophism vs Uniformitarianism
Catastrophism was an idea composed by George Curvier that states that earthās current geological landscape is the result of violent and sudden cataclysmic events. Uniformitarianism was a concept produced by Charles Lyell stating that long-term natural processes continue to form earthās features.
Who is George Mendel and what did he do?
The āfatherā of genetics; used his pea plants to establish basic units of inheritance, genetics, and variation
Where are genes located?
On a segment of DNA
What does a gene do?
Code for a specific trait
What is a trait?
Observational characteristics on a person-eye color, hair color, height, etc.
Dominant vs Recessive
Dominant = genes that mask a hidden gene or present themselves in all generations
Recessive = a hidden gene
Gene vs allele
Gene = segment of DNA that codes for a trait
Allele = variant of the gene
Gene - eye color
Allele - variations of eye color (brown, blue, etc.)
Principle of independent assortment
A concept produced by Mendel declaring that pairs of alleles assort themselves independently. The distribution of one pair of alleles has no influence over the other pair of alleles, it is randomized to create a 50/50 chance, so it generates more variation in gametes.
Principle of segregation
Another principle created by Mendel stating that each gamete will receive one allele for a specific gene from their parents that posses two alleles
What is linkage?
A violation of independent assortment in which genes are on the same chromosome at different loci that tend to be inherited together, which decreases variation.
Genotype vs Phenotype
Genotype = genetic makeup
Phenotype = physical expression of genetic makeup
How would you use a Punnett square?
To calculate genotypes and possible phenotypes
What is the relationship between genetic variation and evolution?
Without variation, natural selection wouldnāt have any alleles to choose from to determine prime adaptiveness and survival, and without natural selection, there would be no evolution
Why is the Scientific Revolution important for biological anthropology?
The renounced discovery and exploration of science changed peopleās perspectives on evolution. New navigation systems that stemmed from the revolution allowed scientists and explorers to observe new wildlife, experiment in biological diversity, and discover fossils from the past, which made them realize that things change and always havenāt been the same.
Why is blending inheritance considered wrong?
Genes donāt āblendā. There is a dominant and recessive gene, and the dominant gene is the only that shows up. Plus, it goes against natural selection since any gene that wouldāve been beneficial would be blended in, therefore losing genetic variation.
Homozygous vs Heterozygous
Homozygous = having the same allele (AA or aa)
Heterozygous = having different alleles (Aa)
What are eye color, hair color, and skin color considered to be?
Polygenic traits
What are polygenic traits?
2 or more genes influence one trait/phenotype, which produce variation
Define Mendelian traits
Traits that follow Mendelās principles of genetic inheritance--determined by a single gene with two alleles that are either dominant or recessive
Blood types, sickle-cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, and Tay-Sachs disease would be called what?
Mendelian traits
What does the modern synthesis state?
States that evolution happens in two stages:
Production and redistribution of variations
Natural selection acts on variations, and such variations among individuals affect their ability to successfully reproduce
Combination of Darwinian evolution and Mendelian genetics
What is the definition of population genetics?
The study of genetics in a breeding population
What are the 3 parts of population genetics?
Genotypic frequency, phenotypic frequency, and allele frequency
The # of allele combinations/genotypes is what?
genotypic frequency
The # of traits presented is what?
phenotypic frequency
The # of alleles is called what?
allele frequency
Microevolution vs Macroevolution
Microevolution = small genetic changes that occur within a species in a short time frame that usually doesnāt cause speciation
Macroevolution = large-scale changes that can result in speciation
What is hidden variation?
Inherited differences that hid in recessive alleles and only show up if there are two copies of the recessive gene
What are the aspects of population genetics that maintain and produce variation?
Mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow
How does mutation produce variation?
Changing the DNA sequence of one gene caused new genes to form
How does recombination/crossing over produce variation?
Intertwining of chromosomes allows for exchange of new combinations of alleles in offspring
How does natural selection produce variation?
It favors different alleles or combination of alleles that suit the organismās situation
How does genetic drift maintain variation?
Random changes in allele frequencies create differences among populations that are isolated from each other
How does genetic drift reduce variation?
Usually happens in smaller populations, and allele combinations with lower frequency can either become fixed/permanent or be lost
How does gene flow produce variation?
The exchange of genes btw populations either introduces new alleles or changes the frequencies of existing alleles
What are some examples of mutations?
Blond hair, lactose tolerance, and color blindness
Is lactose tolerance a bad or good mutation?
Good mutation b/c digesting lactose gives us the ability to consume more calories needed for survival
What are the principles of genetic inheritance that maintain and product variation?
Principle of segregation, principle of independent assortment, and crossing over/recombination
Define nature vs nurture
Nature: your genetics
Nurture: your environment/situation that can impact your genetics
Is this how you are or did your environment play a role?
How can the environment impact genetics?
If you live in a place where there are no adequate food, shelter, or sources for you to grow, then your genetics will change based on the lack of nutrient and comfort from your surroundings
What is the process of natural selection
All species have variation and produce offspring faster than food supply increase
Limited food = competition among individuals
Individuals with beneficial traits have a better chance of surviving and successfully reproducing
Nature perceives traits as either beneficial or harmful, and the beneficial traits stay
Those traits are passed down to the offspring
Variations accumulate over time to the point where current generations may differ from ancestral ones
As populations respond to the environment, they may become distinct and descend from a common ancestor
Later generations or new species may be distinct from ancestral generations
The creation of a new species is classified as what?
Speciation
When does speciation occur?
During macroevolution
Biological vs Ecological species
biological = species cannot breed with each other due to varying genes; reproductive isolation
ecological = species that live in the same geographic region, but have distinct niches; can still breed but offspring becomes infertile
A role that a species plays in their local environment is a ______
niche
How did species form during allopatric speciation?
New species formed from geographically isolated populations; some barrier prevents gene flow between populations
How did species form through parapatric speciation?
Two populations that have different roles share a common border called the āhybrid zoneā that allow for some gene flow
Define adaptive radiation
Organisms filling open niches
When might an animal need to perform adaptive radiation?
After an extinction of a former species, environmental changes, or migration to a new region
What does punctuated equilibrium have to do with speciation and evolution?
It can speed up evolution by disrupting long periods of stability with evolutionary leaps to help keep a species alive
How do we classify species?
Through phylogeny and systematics; name their genus and species
Define taxonomy
Science of classifying living things into groups based on their similarities; based on an idea that all living things share a common ancestor and evolved from that ancestor
The āfamily treeā or history of evolutionary descent is called _____.
Phylogeny
What is the procedure for constructing phylogeny?
Systematics
Why are phylogenies important?
Helps identify and classify organisms
Determines why a species is involved in certain adaptations and not others
Compares morphological traits and behaviors in different species
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