Psych exam 2 terms

Self-concept

the overall set of beliefs that people have about their personal attributes

upward social comparsion

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

self-perception theory

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing and the situation in which it occurs

Social comparison theory

the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

Downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability

Extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

Fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

introspection

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

causal theories

theories about the causes of one’s own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture "(ex: “absence makes the heart grow fonder”)

two-factor theory of emotion

the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it

independent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of ones own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people

self-control

the ability to subdue immediate desire to achieve long-term goals

misattribution on of arousal

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do

intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

performance contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

self-handicapping

the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

task-contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

Growth mindset

the idea that achievement is the result of working hard, trying new strategies, and seeking input from others

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

self-awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

overjustification effect

the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one’s relationships to other people, recognizing that one’s behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings and actions of others

implementation intentions

people’s specific plans about where, when, and how they will fulfill a goal and avoid temptations

Ingratiation

the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status

internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (ex, one’s attitude of behavior)

narcissism

the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others

self-evaluation maintenance theory

the idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem. This dissonance can be reduced by becoming less close to the person, changing our behavior so that we now outperform them, or deciding that the area is not that important to us after all

self-affirmation theory

the idea that people can reduce threats to their self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of the threat

Counterattitudinal behavior

acting in a way that runs counter to one’s private beliefs

Cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when two cognitions conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves

Justification of effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

Postdecision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives

terror management theory

the theory that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality

insufficient punishment

The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals devaluing the forbidden activity or object

External justification

Explaining a counterattitudinal behavior as due to something about the situation or environment (e.g., believing the behavior was justified by a large reward)

Hypocrisy induction

The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior; The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior

Cognitively based attitude

an attitude based primarily on people’s beliefs about the properties of an attitude object

affectively based attitude

an attitude based more on people’s feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object

Central route to persuasion

when people have both the ability and the motivation to elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments presented

Fear- arousing communication

Persuasive message that attempts to change people’s attitudes by arousing their fears

Attitudes

evaluations of people, objects, and ideas

classical conditioning

the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

Explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

implicit attitudes

attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness

Behaviorally Based attitude

an attitude based on observations of how one behaves towards an object

Attitude inoculation

making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position

Attitude accessibility

the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object

Elaboration likelihood model

a model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments buy are instead swayed by surface characteristics

Heuristic-systematic model of persuasion

an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: either systematically processing the merits of the arguments of using mental shortcuts of heuristics

Persuasive communication

a message advocating a particular side of an issue

Reactance theory

the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of resistance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the prohibited behavior

Peripheral route to persuasion

when people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by more superficial cues

Operant conditioning

the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment

Theory of planned behavior

the idea that people’s intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

Subliminal messages

words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence judgments, attitudes, and behaviors

yale attitude change approach

the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience