Unit 1 - Chemistry of Life

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143 Terms

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covalent bond

the sharing of electrons between two atoms

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ionic bond

the transfer of electrons (between a cation and an anion)

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hydrogen bond

forms when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom

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van der waals interactions

attractions between molecules that are close together as a result of charges

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what type of bonds form in water molecules?

polar covalent bonds

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what type of bonds form between water molecules?

hydrogen bonds

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why do water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other?

because the polar covalent bonding in the water molecules causes the unequal sharing of electrons between the atoms of the molecule, allowing bonds to form between the slightly positive and slightly negative ends of water molecules

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cohesion

water molecules sticking to other water molecules with hydrogen bonds

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adhesion

the attraction between water and other substances or surfaces

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capillary action

water moving against gravity by cohesion and adhesion working together

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surface tension

how hard it is to break the surface of a liquid, water has high surface tension due to its hydrogen bonds (cohesion)

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moderation of temperature by water

water absorbs heat from warmer air and releases stored heat to cooler air. water can absorb or release large amounts of heat with only a slight change in its own temperature

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water’s high specific heat

water resists changing its temperature because of its high specific heat. the high specific heat of water minimizes temperature fluctuations to limits that permit life

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evaporative cooling

as a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools. evaporative cooling in water helps stabilize temperatures in organisms and in bodies of water

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density of ice

ice floats in water because hydrogen bonds in ice are more ordered, making ice less dense. ice creates a blanket on the surface of a body of water, insulating the temperature of the water for the survival of living organisms

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solution

a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of substances

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solvent

does the dissolving

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solute

is being dissolved

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aqueous solution

water is the solvent

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why is water the universal solvent of life?

due to its polarity

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what happens when an ionic compound is dissolved in water?

each ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules called a hydration shell

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hydrophilic

loves water

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hydrophobic

hates water

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hydrogen ion (H+)

the ion that loses one of its electrons and is transferred as a proton

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hydroxide ion (OH-)

molecule that loses the proton

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hydronium ion (H₃O+)

molecule with the extra proton

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acid

a substance that increases the H+ of a solution

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base

a substance that reduces the H+ of a solution

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what happens to strong acids and bases in water?

they completely dissociate

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buffers

substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution

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what kinds of molecules is carbon able to form?

large, complex molecules

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why can carbon form large, complex molecules?

because it has 4 available bonds

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what does ‘organic’ in biology mean?

something contains carbon and hydrogen and comes from a living thing

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vitalism

the belief that in a life force outside jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws

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Redi

performed the maggot experiment, where he saw that maggots only formed when flies came in contact with the meat; disproving spontaneous generation.

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Spallenzani

his experiment showed that it is not an inherent feature of matter that it can be destroyed by an hour of boiling. he realized that spontaneous generation could not happen without air.

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Pasteur

boiled meat broth in a flask that prevented falling particles from coming in contact with the broth but allowed air to reach it. certain air particles caused the particles to spoil disproving spontaneous generation

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when was vitalism disproved?

when chemists were able to synthesize organic molecules

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Stanley Miller

demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds

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the Miller Urey experiment

Miller simulated Earth’s early atmosphere and oceans to test if organic molecules could be created abiogenically. organic molecules formed.

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mechanism

the view that physical and chemical laws govern all natural phenomena

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what does the electron configuration of carbon cause?

its compatibility with many different elements

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what do carbon chains form?

the skeletons of most organic molecules

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hydrocarbons

organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen

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what happens when hydrocarbons undergo reactions?

they release large amounts of energy

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isomers

compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties

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structural isomers

have different covalent arrangements of their atoms

<p>have different covalent arrangements of their atoms</p>
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cis-trans isomers

have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements

<p>have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements</p>
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enantiomers

isomers that are mirror images of each other

<p>isomers that are mirror images of each other</p>
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what industry are enantiomers important in?

the pharmaceutical industry

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what is the form of the carbon skeletons' of estradiol and testosterone?

four fused carbon rings

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how do testosterone and estradiol differ?

in the chemical groups attached to the rings of the carbon skeleton

<p>in the chemical groups attached to the rings of the carbon skeleton</p>
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functional groups

the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions

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what about the functional groups gives each molecule its unique properties?

the number and arrangement of the groups

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what are the seven most important functional groups?

  • hydroxyl group

  • carbonyl group

  • carboxyl group

  • sulfhydryl group

  • phosphate group

  • methyl group

  • amino group

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hydroxyl group (-OH) or (HO-)

  • polar due to electronegative oxygen

  • forms hydrogen bonds with water

  • compound name: alcohol

<ul><li><p>polar due to electronegative oxygen</p></li><li><p>forms hydrogen bonds with water</p></li><li><p>compound name: alcohol</p></li></ul><p></p>
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carbonyl group (>C=O)

  • ketoses - sugars with ketone groups

  • aldoses - sugars with aldehydes

  • compound name: ketone or aldehyde

<ul><li><p>ketoses - sugars with ketone groups</p></li><li><p>aldoses - sugars with aldehydes</p></li><li><p>compound name: ketone or aldehyde</p></li></ul><p></p>
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carboxyl group (-COOH)

  • acts as an acid

  • compound name: carboxylic acid or organic acid

<ul><li><p>acts as an acid</p></li><li><p>compound name: carboxylic acid or organic acid</p></li></ul><p></p>
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amino group (-NH₂)

  • acts as a base

  • compound name: amine

<ul><li><p>acts as a base</p></li><li><p>compound name: amine</p></li></ul><p></p>
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sulfhydryl group (-SH) or (HS-)

  • two (-SH) groups can react to form a disulfide bridge that helps stabilize proteins

  • compound name: thiol

<ul><li><p>two (-SH) groups can react to form a disulfide bridge that helps stabilize proteins</p></li><li><p>compound name: thiol</p></li></ul><p></p>
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phosphate group (-OPO₃⁻²)

  • contributes negative charge

  • when attached, confers on a molecule the ability to react with water, releasing energy

  • compound name: organic phosphate

<ul><li><p>contributes negative charge</p></li><li><p>when attached, confers on a molecule the ability to react with water, releasing energy</p></li><li><p>compound name: organic phosphate</p></li></ul><p></p>
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methyl group (-CH₃)

  • affects the expression of genes

  • affects the shape and function of sex hormones

  • compound name: methylated compound

<ul><li><p>affects the expression of genes</p></li><li><p>affects the shape and function of sex hormones</p></li><li><p>compound name: methylated compound</p></li></ul><p></p>
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adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

  • an important organic phosphate

  • consists of an organic molecule (adenosine) attached to a string of three phosphate groups and one adenine

  • stores the potential to react with water, a reaction that releases energy to be used by the cell

<ul><li><p>an important organic phosphate</p></li><li><p>consists of an organic molecule (adenosine) attached to a string of three phosphate groups and one adenine</p></li><li><p>stores the potential to react with water, a reaction that releases energy to be used by the cell</p></li></ul><p></p>
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adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

  • consists of an organic molecule (adenosine) attached to a string of two phosphate groups and one adenine

<ul><li><p>consists of an organic molecule (adenosine) attached to a string of two phosphate groups and one adenine</p></li></ul><p></p>
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what are the four biological macromolecules?

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

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macromolecule

large and complex molecules

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monomer

repeating units that serve as building blocks

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polymer

a long molecule consisting of many similar monomers

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enzymes

specialized molecules that speed up chemical reactions

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dehydration synthesis

occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of water

<p>occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of water</p>
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hydrolysis

occurs when a polymer breaks apart into monomers through the addition of water

<p>occurs when a polymer breaks apart into monomers through the addition of water</p>
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carbohydrates

include sugars and the polymers of sugars

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monosaccharides

simplest carbohydrates

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polysaccharides

polymers composed of many sugar building blocks

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what is the ratio of the molecular formulas for monosaccharides?

CH₂O (1:2:1)

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what are monosaccharides classified by?

  • the location of the carbonyl group as aldose or ketose

  • the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

<ul><li><p>the location of the carbonyl group as aldose or ketose</p></li><li><p>the number of carbons in the carbon skeleton</p></li></ul><p></p>
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what is the function of carbohydrates?

to serve as major fuel for cells as raw material for building molecules

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disaccharide

formed when a dehydration synthesis reaction joins two monosaccharides

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what is kind of covalent bond joins a carbohydrate with another molecule?

a glycosidic bond

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starch

  • a storage polysaccharide of plants, consist entirely of glucose monomers

  • plants store extra starch as granules in chloroplasts and other plastids

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cellulose

  • a structural polysaccharide

  • a major component of the tough cell wall of plant cells

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what is the difference of glycosidic linkages between starch and cellulose?

  • starch has alpha rings (glucose) and is largely helical

  • cellulose has beta rings (glucose) and is straight and unhinged

  • enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages cannot hydrolyze beta linkages in cellulose

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chitin

  • a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods

  • provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

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do lipids include true polymers?

no because they are not composed of repeating units of monomers

<p>no because they are not composed of repeating units of monomers</p>
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what is the unifying feature of lipids?

they do not mix well with water or they do not mix at all because they consist of mostly hydrocarbons

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what are the three most important lipids?

fats, phospholipids, and steroids

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what are fats constructed from?

glycerol and fatty acids

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glycerol

a three carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

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fatty acid

consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

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why do fats separate from water?

water molecules hydrogen bond to each other and exclude the fats

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ester linkage

the bond between the hydrocarbon and the carboxylic ends of a fat

<p>the bond between the hydrocarbon and the carboxylic ends of a fat</p>
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saturated fatty acids

  • have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and NO double bonds

  • solid at room temp

  • most animal fats

<ul><li><p>have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and NO double bonds</p></li><li><p>solid at room temp</p></li><li><p>most animal fats</p></li></ul><p></p>
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unsaturated fatty acids

  • have one or more double bonds

  • liquid at room temp

  • usually plants and fish fats

<ul><li><p>have one or more double bonds</p></li><li><p>liquid at room temp</p></li><li><p>usually plants and fish fats</p></li></ul><p></p>
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hydrogenation

the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

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what does hydrogenating vegetable oils create?

unsaturated fats with trans double bonds (trans fats)

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what is the major function of fats?

to store energy to use when its needed

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phospholipid

composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol

<p>composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol</p>
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what happens when phospholipids are added to water?

  • they self-assemble into double-layered structures called bilayers

    • this allows them to form the cell membrane

<ul><li><p>they self-assemble into double-layered structures called bilayers</p><ul><li><p>this allows them to form the cell membrane</p></li></ul></li></ul><p></p>
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steroids

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

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cholesterol

a type of steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes and a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized