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Who is at greater risk for Alzheimer’s disease?
Women
Who is at greater risk for cortical atrophy?
Men (specifically in prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, and cingulate cortex)
Where are neurofibrillary tangles located?
Intracellularly; within neurons in the hippocampus, neocortex, and certain other regions of the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem
What does methylation do?
Modification of DNA without changing the nucleotide sequence; decreasing hormone receptor expression in the brain; reducing likelihood of expression of DNA sequence
What are steroid hormones?
hormones derived from cholesterol (like estrogens, progestins, and androgens)
How do steroid hormones interact with cell membranes?
they are lipid soluble and easily pass through cell membranes
Where is luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted in the body?
pituitary gland
What hormones are needed for sperm production?
testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
When does luteinizing hormone (LH) spike in the menstruation cycle?
ovulation
What are the 4 stages of the Masters/Johnson/Kaplan model of sex response?
desire, arousal, orgasm, resolution
What was the interpretation of the human proceptive behavior study?
Women’s choice of dress changes according to their ovulatory cycle. Women tend to display “feminine” features around ovulation.
What is the difference between the activational and organizational effects of testosterone on sexual behavior?
Organizational effects are permanent and occur early during development. Activational effects are transient and occur throughout life.
What are the gonads of an androgen sensitive human with XY chromosomes?
testes
Which chromosome has the SRY gene?
Y chromosome
What are the characteristics of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia causes developing females to be exposed to excess androgens before birth. Newborns have normal ovaries, no testes, and may have an intersex phenotype.
What is the difference between homeostasis and allostasis?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable, balanced, internal environment. Allostasis is behavioral and physiological adjustments to maintain optimal functioning of a regulated system.
Is body temperature an example of homeostasis or allostasis?
homeostasis
Is heart rate an example of homeostasis or allostasis?
allostasis
What are some physical responses for thermoregulation?
Non-shivering thermogenesis, skin blood flow, water evaporation, and shivering thermogenesis
What are some behavioral responses for thermoregulation?
postural changes, temperature choice, altering microenvironment
Which brain region is responsible for physiological responses to the cold?
preoptic area
How does the body react upon reaching the desired temperature?
Negative feedback — monitoring output and reducing activity when a set point is reached
Which area is responsible for behavioral thermoregulation?
lateral hypothalamus
What is the effect of severe water loss on blood pressure and plasma volume?
Blood pressure decreases and plasma volume decreases
Which system has baroreceptors?
vascular system
Which hormone causes blood vessel constriction?
Angiotensin II (AII)
Which region in the brain contains osmoreceptor neurons?
OVLT and the hypothalamus
What effect does hypovolemia have on blood vessels and the posterior pituitary?
Blood vessels constrict and the posterior pituitary releases vasopressin to cause this.
What is the hormonal response to osmotic thirst? Where does it act?
Aldosterone is released from the adrenal gland to retain sodium and it acts on the kidneys.
What is excess diuresis and what is its most likely cause?
Excess diuresis is excess urination and its most likely cause is a vasopressin deficiency.
How much food energy is spent on behavioral processes?
10-20%
How much food energy is spent on basal metabolism?
80-90%
What is glycogenolysis?
The process of body fat being converted to glucose and ketones
What is glucose stored as?
glycogen (through the process of glycogenesis)
Where is insulin secreted?
pancreas
What is an excess of glucose in urine a symptom of?
diabetes mellitus
What happens if the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is lesioned in rats?
The rats exhibit uncontrollable eating, causing obesity.
Which are the appetite suppression intestinal hormones?
PYY 3-36 and GLP-1
What system do appetite stimulants (like anadamide and orexin) act on?
mesolimbocortical system
What are the types of cells that taste buds are made up of?
Sweet/umami/bitter cells, support cells, salty cells, and sour cells
What are taste papillae?
small bumps that project from the surface of the tongue; contain most of the taste receptor cells
How does the gustatory system travel?
It extends from the tongue, to brainstem nuclei, to the thalamus, to the gustatory part of the somatosensory cortex
How are humans able to detect such a vast variety of odors?
Odor receptors have unique patterns depending on different odorants, rather than a 1-to-1 receptor connection.
Does olfactory information need the thalamus to reach its sensory cortex?
No, it can go directly through the hypothalamus instead
Which part of the brain is responsible for the restoration of circadian rhythm?
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
What is the biological role of slow-wave sleep (SWS) and REM sleep?
the consolidation of perceptual learning
What region is responsible for sleepiness and which is responsible for wakefulness?
Tuberomammillary nucleus is responsible for sleepiness and the reticular formation is responsible for wakefulness.
