AQA A-Level Psychology

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What is classical conditioning?

Learning through association, where a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a natural response.This occurs when an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, leading to a conditioned response.

Who studied classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist who studied learning in dogs.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without any prior learning.

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

A natural, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.This response is not learned and occurs repulsively.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that does not naturally produce the target response before conditioning.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without any prior learning.

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

An automatic, unlearned response to an unconditioned stimulus.

What was the UCS in Pavlov's experiment?

Food.

What was the UCR in Pavlov's experiment?

Salivation caused by the food.

What was the NS in Pavlov's experiment?

The bell before conditioning.

What happened before conditioning in Pavlov's experiment?

Bell (NS) → no salivation; Food (UCS) → salivation (UCR).

What happened during conditioning?

Pavlov repeatedly paired the bell (NS) with food (UCS), which naturally produced salivation (UCR).

What happens after conditioning?

The bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and produces salivation, now called the conditioned response (CR).

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus and can now produce a learned response.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A learned response produced by a conditioned stimulus.

What is the full Pavlov sequence?

Before: NS (bell) → no salivation. UCS (food) → UCR (salivation). During: NS + UCS → UCR. After: CS (bell) → CR (salivation).

How can classical conditioning explain phobias?

A neutral stimulus can become associated with a frightening experience, causing the stimulus to produce a learned fear response.

How could a seagull become associated with fear through classical conditioning?

Seagull (NS) + frightening experience (UCS) → fear (UCR). After conditioning: seagull (CS) → fear (CR).

What is the key idea to remember about classical conditioning?

Learning happens because two stimuli become associated with each other.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.

Who is associated with operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist who developed and researched operant conditioning through experiments with animals such as rats and pigeons.

What animals did Skinner study?

Mainly rats and pigeons.

What was a Skinner box?

A controlled apparatus containing an animal and a mechanism, such as a lever, that could produce a consequence such as food.

What happened in Skinner's rat experiment?

A rat accidentally pressed a lever and received food. Over time, it learned the connection and pressed the lever more frequently.

What is reinforcement?

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a desirable consequence after a behaviour, making that behaviour more likely to happen again.

Give an example of positive reinforcement.

A student studies hard and receives a good grade, increasing the likelihood that they will study again.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing an unpleasant consequence after a behaviour, making that behaviour more likely to happen again.

Give an example of negative reinforcement.

Completing homework stops a teacher repeatedly reminding you, making you more likely to complete homework on time.

What does "positive" mean in positive reinforcement?

Something is added.

What does "negative" mean in negative reinforcement?

Something is removed.

What does "reinforcement" mean?

The behaviour becomes more likely to happen again.

What is the easiest way to remember positive vs negative reinforcement?

Positive = add something. Negative = remove something. Both increase behaviour.

How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves associations between stimuli, while operant conditioning involves associations between behaviour and its consequences.

What is the key idea behind operant conditioning?

Behaviours followed by reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated.

What is conformity?

A change in a person's behaviour, opinions or answers as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

Who investigated conformity using a line judgement task?

Solomon Asch in 1951.

What was the aim of Asch's study?

To investigate whether people would conform to a majority group even when the majority gave an obviously incorrect answer.

What was the line judgement task?

Participants were shown one standard line and three comparison lines and had to identify which comparison line was the same length as the standard.

Why was Asch's task useful for studying conformity?

The correct answer was usually obvious, so researchers could see whether participants would conform to the group's incorrect answer.

What is a confederate?

A person who appears to be a participant but is actually working with the researcher.

How many genuine participants were used in Asch's study?

123 male American undergraduate participants.

How many confederates were in each group?

Usually 6–8 confederates were present with one genuine participant.

How many trials were used in Asch's study?

18 trials in total.

How was each group organised in Asch's study?

Each group had 1 genuine participant and around 6–8 confederates who were secretly working with the researcher.

What percentage of critical trials resulted in conformity?

37%.

How many participants conformed at least once?

75% conformed at least once.

How many participants never conformed?

25% never conformed.

What did Asch conclude?

People can conform to group pressure even when the correct answer is clear.

What type of conformity is demonstrated by Asch's findings?

Compliance — publicly agreeing with the majority while privately disagreeing.

What is normative social influence (NSI)?

Conforming because a person wants to be accepted by the group and avoid rejection or disapproval.

Why might people conform through normative social influence?

They may want to fit in, avoid embarrassment, gain social approval or avoid rejection.

What is the link between NSI and compliance?

A person may publicly agree with the group to gain acceptance, while privately knowing that the group's answer is wrong.

What is the key finding from Asch's study?

Participants gave the wrong answer on 36.8% of critical trials, showing that group pressure can cause conformity.

What is the easiest way to remember Asch's procedure?

Line task → confederates give wrong answer → genuine participant answers → measure conformity.

What is the easiest way to remember Asch's main explanation?

"I know the answer is wrong, but I don't want to stand out" = normative social influence.

What is the key message of Asch's study?

People may conform to a majority even when they can clearly see that the majority is wrong.