Reading 1, Unit 1 - psychology

cognition

translated to simply mean ‘thinking’

metacognition

the deliberate act of thinking about one’s own thinking

memory

the cognitive process that allows individuals to retain information because of three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

the automatic or effortful processing of information, which is the first stage of memory.

attention and selective attention is key to encoding.

there are three types of encoding: structural, phonemic, semantic encoding.

storage

the process of how an item is being held within the memory system, which is the second stage of memory

retrieval

the process of locating items and taking them out of the memory system through recall or recognition, which is the third stage of memory

multi-store model of memory

theory that explains that memory can be defined as three distinguishable stages (sensory, short term, long term) through which information passes in a sequential way as it is processed.

attention

actions taken by a learner to allow information to go further into the memory system. This may involve writing things down, repeating them, and using memory techniques.

involves focusing on a narrower range of stimuli, which can be conscious or unconscious.

selective attention

the usually conscious focusing of awareness on particular stimuli at the expense of other stimuli.

this is also known as the process of paying attention to something.

encoding failure

the memory problem when the information isn’t placed in the memory system. This can happen because of the lack of attention, encoding was processed shallowly (structural), or encoding was intermediately (phonemic) processed

automatic processing (how we encode?)

an unconscious process of encoding material that can be done quickly and without effort for familiar information

effortful processing (how we encode?)

the conscious process of encoding material that requires attention and results in longer lasting and more durable memories due to improved encoding

levels of processing model of memory

the theory of memory stressing how information is encoded (visually, acoustically, or semantically) regarding the depth of attention involved and its impact on retention and retrieval

structural encoding

a shallow level of processing that involves putting information into the memory system based on how it looks (the physical structure of the stimulus)

phonemic encoding

an intermediate level of processing that involves putting information into the memory system based on sound.

ex: the word rhymes with brain

semantic encoding

a deep level of processing that involves putting information into memory by emphasizing meaning.

ex: creating images in the head, making associations, categorizing

this is the most effective encoding process because it involves elaborative rehearsal.

rehearsal

an aspect of encoding that involves deliberate, conscious attempts to place information into the memory system

elaborative rehearsal

the deliberate process of encoding through the use of of connections to previously learned information.

ex: the self-reference effect = when info is remembered when it is related to oneself.

this process helps maintain long term memory

maintenance rehearsal

the deliberate process of encoding through conscious repetition of information.

this process helps maintain short term memory

sensory memory

the first stage in the memory process that includes iconic and echoic memories which last for no more than a few seconds if no effort is made to recall the information.

has a large capacity but duration is seconds/short

iconic sensory memory storage

retains a brief visual image for a faction of a second, allowing continuity despite frequent blinking throughout the day

echoic sensory memory storage

stores sounds for a few seconds

short term memory

the second stage in the memory process that can hold onto a limited amount of information for 10-30 seconds without repetition or practice.

the capacity of short term memory is 5-9 pieces of information

chunking

the grouping of related items into meaningful units, which increase the amount of material that can be held in short term memory

working memory model

theory that expanded the original concept of short term memory.

short term memory can be seen as an active process using several components: central executive, a visuospatial sketchpad, and a phenological loop.

This occurs in the prefrontal cortex.

central executive

component of working memory that controls the limited attention of both visual pictures and auditory rehearsal.

kind of like a combination of both visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop

visuospatial sketchpad

the working memory component used to temporarily hold images through rehearsal

phonological loop

component of working memory that is used to temporarily hold onto verbal information through rehearsal

working memory capacity

refers to an individual’s ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention.

long term memory

the third stage in the memory process that is potentially limitless in capacity and relatively permanent in duration.

it contains both explicit and implicit.

the durability is minutes - forever.

implicit long term memory

for information that is difficult to directly recall.

includes procedural memories, priming, and conditioned responses

procedural memory

a type of implicit LTM that consist of habits and cognitive rules involved in particular tasks.

created indirectly without conscious effort and can be tested through behavioral responses.

the cerebellum and the basal ganglia is responsible for this type of memory

ex: riding a bike

explicit long term memory

related to information that can be recalled when requested.

includes both semantic and episodic memories

semantic long term memory

a type of explicit long term memory for general facts or knowledge.

ex: grammar

episodic long term memory

a type of explicit long term memory for an experience or event from one’s life.

ex: first birthday party

flashbulb memory

a particularly vivid and long lasting episodic memory associated with a significant event

memory consolidation

the movement from the hippocampus to the memory storage.

the gradual biological process of long term memory storage.

a key factor to this process is sleep because that is when the hippocampus processes

prospective memory

involves remembering to do something in the future.

‘I should fill up the gas tomorrow morning’

improving storage and retrieval

storage can be improved with organization such as categories, hierarchies, and the spacing effect

retrieval

the process of locating items and taking them out of the memory system through recall or recognition

recall

a type of memory retrieval in which a person must bring back detailed information without any assistance or cues.

ex: what is required to write an FRQ

recognition

a type of memory retrieval in which a person must bring back information by correctly identifying the answer from several possible choices.

ex: what happens during MCQ

highly superior autobiographical memory

this unique condition allows individuals to vividly remember personal experiences from their past with unparalleled precision.

these people are still susceptible to memory errors

constructive memory

the active process of building recollections of events by using stored information to modify or add to our memory

false memory

an inaccurate memory created when a person’s actual memory becomes distorted because they unconsciously add or remove information received from other sources

misinformation effect

a phenomenon that occurs when the recall a witness has for an event is altered due to the introduction of inaccurate information from another source

imagination inflation

a phenomenon where imaging an event that did not actually occur can lead to the creation of false memories.

this highlights the constructive memory process

source amnesia

when we forget the origin of where we obtained a particular piece of information

forgetting

an increase in errors when trying to bring back material from memory for a variety of reasons

Ebbinghaus’ research

-used the method of creating long lists of nonsense syllables, which are three letter combinations that didn’t have recognizable meaning

-he personally memorized the list and tested himself on recall after intervals of several minutes to many days

retention curve (learning curve)

A graphed representation of how fast learning happens. Ebbinghaus found that the more time he spent learning the list on day 1, the less time was required to for him to relearn on day 2. The graph was a near linear relationship that had a slope of -1

forgetting curve

the graphed representation of how much information was lost over time. After an initially steep drop off, the forgetting curve levels off. The greatest rate of forgetting occurs within the first day of learning, specifically, the first hour

relearning

the process of regaining lost information after forgetting, which is used as a key of memory retention

overlearning

continuing to rehearse material after you have mastered. This is a way to overcome the forgetting curve

distributed practice

is a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or by engaging in different activities or studying. This type of practice also includes spaced effect

massed practice

learning in one or a couple of long and intense time periods. This requires a lot of attention/concentration, durability, and repetition

testing effect

repeatedly quizzing oneself on material. This improves retrieval and shields memory from stress-induced impairments

retention

the proportion of material that is retained or remembered

decay

theory suggests that memories disappear with time if they are not retrieved

interference theory

forgetting due to blocking by other activities a person engages in between learning and the test of retention

proactive interference

old information blocks one’s recall of a newly created memory

retroactive interference

when recently learned information blocks the recall of old memories

repression

refers to the unconscious blocking of upsetting memories or unacceptable urges/desires by placing these thoughts in the inaccessible region of the mind called the unconscious

amnesia

the temporarily or permanent loss of memory that typically has physical causes

retrograde amnesia

involves the inability to remember events that was stored before the illness or injury that resulted in amnesia

anterograde amnesia

involves the inability to retain memories for events after the injury that resulted in the amnesia

hippocampus

responsible for the creation of long term memories

cerebellum

involved in both procedural memory and fine motor control

amygdala

responsible for the experience of emotions

basal ganglia

related to goal-oriented voluntary movements

acetylcholine

neurotransmitter associated with memory and muscle contraction

glutamate

neurotransmitter associated with memory creation and long term potentiation

frontal lobes and prefrontal cortex

responsible for short term memory/working memory, recalling episodic memories, and determining the order in which specific events occurred

long term potentiation

the idea that when something is learned, new neural connections are formed in the brain to represent that new information, or existing neural connections are strengthened. Glutamate is associated with this

infantile amnesia

the fact that individuals cannot remember their early childhood years (infancy to about 3 and a half)