Age of Revolutions

Galileo Galilea

An Italian astronomer and physicist who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. He is known for his contributions to modern observational astronomy, including improvements to the telescope and support for heliocentrism.

Nicolaus Copernicus

A Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at its center, fundamentally changing the framework of astronomy.

Francis Bacon

An English philosopher and statesman known for developing the scientific method and emphasizing empirical evidence.

Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist who developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics.

Geocentric vs Heliocentric

The geocentric model posits that Earth is the center of the universe, while the heliocentric model asserts that the Sun is at the center, a theory popularized by Nicolaus Copernicus.

Voltaire

A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state.

Rousseau

A Genevan philosopher whose work influenced the French Revolution and modern political thought, particularly his ideas on the social contract and individual freedom.

Adam Smith

Scottish philosopher best known for his work "The Wealth of Nations,” which introduced concepts of free market and the invisible hand guiding economic behavior and Laissez Faire, which is abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market

Diderot

A French philosopher and writer best known for co-founding the Encyclopédie, which played a significant role in the Enlightenment by promoting knowledge and reason.

Mary Wollstonecraft

An English writer and advocate for women's rights, best known for her work "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," which argued for the education and empowerment of women as essential to societal progress.

Montesquieu

A French political philosopher known for his work "The Spirit of the Laws," which introduced the idea of separation of powers in government, influencing modern democratic systems.

Thomas Hobbes

A philosopher known for his social contract theory and for his book "Leviathan," where he argues for a strong central authority to avoid chaos and ensure peace.

John Locke

An influential philosopher whose ideas on natural rights, government by consent, and the social contract greatly shaped modern political thought. His work, particularly natural rights, defended the rights to life, liberty, and property.

Louis XVI

The King of France during the French Revolution, known for his indecisiveness and inability to manage the state's financial crises, ultimately leading to his execution in 1793.

Marie Antoinette

The last Queen of France and wife of King Louis XVI, known for her extravagant lifestyle and eventual execution during the French Revolution. Her perceived indifference to the plight of the poor contributed to her unpopularity.

Maximilien Robespierre

A key figure in the French Revolution, Robespierre was a leader of the Committee of Public Safety and instrumental in the Reign of Terror. He advocated for radical democracy and the abolition of monarchy, ultimately leading to his own execution.

The Three Estates

The social hierarchy in pre-revolutionary France, consisting of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (commoners). This division played a crucial role in the discontent that fueled the French Revolution.

Bourgeoisie

The social class in France that included the middle class, such as merchants, professionals, and artisans. The bourgeoisie played a significant role in the French Revolution by advocating for greater social and political rights.

Tennis Court Oath

A pivotal event during the French Revolution where members of the Third Estate vowed not to disband until a new constitution was established. This act of defiance against King Louis XVI marked the beginning of a struggle for political representation.

Guillotine

A device used for carrying out executions by beheading, notably associated with the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. It symbolized the revolutionary government's commitment to radical justice.

Sans-culottes

Working-class citizens in revolutionary France known for their radicalism and influence in pushing for the rights of the common people during the French Revolution.

Jacobins

A political group during the French Revolution that advocated for radical change and the establishment of a republic, known for their role in the Reign of Terror and significant influence in revolutionary politics.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A fundamental document from the French Revolution that outlines individual rights and the principles of political sovereignty, emphasizing liberty, equality, and fraternity.

National Assembly

The revolutionary assembly formed in 1789 by the representatives of the Third Estate in France, which played a crucial role in the early stages of the French Revolution and sought to create a constitutional monarchy.

Fall of the Bastille

The storming of the Bastille prison on July 14, 1789, marked a pivotal event in the French Revolution, symbolizing the uprising against royal authority and the call for liberty and popular sovereignty.

Women’s March on Versailles

A march that took place on October 5, 1789, where a group of Parisian women marched to Versailles to demand bread and force King Louis XVI and his family to return to Paris, symbolizing popular discontent and the demand for political action.

The Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution from 1793 to 1794 characterized by extreme political repression, widespread purges, and executions of perceived enemies, most notably carried out by the Committee of Public Safety.

Girondists

A political faction during the French Revolution, the Girondists were known for their support of a constitutional government, opposing the radical Jacobins and advocating for moderate reforms.

The Committee of Public Safety

A governing body during the French Revolution, established in April 1793, responsible for protecting the Republic from foreign attacks and internal rebellion, and known for overseeing the Reign of Terror.

The Directory

The government of France from 1795 to 1799, established after the fall of the Jacobins, characterized by a five-member committee, it aimed to provide stability and moderate governance following the radical phase of the Revolution.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A military general and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution. He became the Emperor of the French, known for implementing significant reforms and expanding France's territory through a series of military campaigns.

Coup d’état

A sudden overthrow of the government, typically executed by a small group often led by military leaders, aimed at seizing power.

Nationalism

A political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation or people, often promoting the idea of self-determination and the desire for national independence.

Waterloo

The decisive battle in 1815 where Napoleon was defeated by the coalition forces led by the Duke of Wellington, marking the end of his rule and the Napoleonic Wars.

Invasion of Russia

The military campaign launched by Napoleon in 1812 aimed at conquering Russia, ultimately leading to disastrous losses for the French army.

Louis XVIII

King of France from 1814 to 1824, except during Napoleon’s Hundred Days in 1815. He was the brother of Louis XVI and ruled during the Bourbon Restoration. He established a constitutional monarchy with the Charter of 1814, attempting to balance royal authority with some revolutionary reforms.

How did the enclosure movement and the Agricultural Revolution set the stage for the Industrial Revolution?

Poor landowners had to give up land to wealthier individuals, and you need an agricultural revolution to provide stability and resources before an industrial revolution.

Why was England the perfect place for the start of the Industrial Revolution?

Resources: iron & coal  and water: transport, power, trade; no wars fought on land and Island natural protection

What changes resulted from the Industrial Revolution?

Social: union tension between the poor and the rich

Political: push for equal rights and labor laws

Economic: rural to urban, trade, mass production

Describe Marx’s ideas about creating Communism and what it would look like

Violence was needed to develop it, and education was required to sustain it, but in utopia, everyone was equal without social injustice

What are the pros and cons of Communism?

Cons: no one can prosper, harsh rules

Pros: everyone is equal, no gaps between rich and poor

What are the pros and cons of Socialism?

Pros: more free market, competition, gov. can help, people can thrive independently

Cons: turn to communism, massive gap between rich and poor, the government can go into debt

Consumer Society

a society in which the buying and selling of goods and services is the most critical social and economic activity. People stopped producing their goods. Items became cheaper.

Labor Unions

Workers found other ways to press for reforms over time. Although they still could not vote, trade workers often joined in groups called unions to bargain for higher wages and better working conditions. If employers were unwilling to make concessions, unions sometimes used the threat of strikes to force the issue. Unskilled workers lacked the means to gain concessions. 

Labor Laws

Arose due to death, injury, and inhuman methods, lessened the harsh hours and pain.

Child Labor

rose due to injury, death, and inhuman methods. Children under nine were not allowed to work; those aged 9–16 could work 16 hours per day per the Cotton Mills Act. In 1856, the law permitted child labour past age 9, for 60 hours per week, night or day.

Urbanization

refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and how each society adapts to this change

Women’s Rights & Suffrage

Movement began in 1848, when a woman's rights convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York. ... Thus, over time, women realized that to achieve reform, they needed to win the right to vote.

Communism

Marx, a German historian who lived in Britain, identified the horrors of the working classes' horrors. But more than just economic inequality, Marx truly identified how people experiencing poverty were tricked and fooled into buying into the idea that “private property” was good. Finally, Marx did more than criticize. He proposed a solution, not just a solution, but paradise. Seize the means of production through revolution. Create a society without classes and let the world's workers unite to create Utopia.

Proletariat

The working class and its allies. Divided by race, religion, ethnicity, nations, and the trickery of the rich. When we unite, we can make a fist to crush the prison that is “free-market capitalism”.

Bourgeoisie

The upper and middle class people who have money and bleed us dry by paying us dirt and tricking us into thanking them for it.

Communist Dialectic

These violent revolts are part of a historical process (or dialectic). They’ve happened throughout history, and the lower class overthrew the upper class and gained more rights and freedoms. 

Socialism

An economic system in which the market is mostly free, but the government provides regulation and financial support to the poor through taxation of businesses and the rich.