Soc100 Test 3

Meritocracy

system where people are sorted based on talent and hard work (merit)- more merit = greater rewards

social mobility

moving up from a lower socioeconomic status into a higher one

Factors deciding socioeconomic position

• structural/ascriptive factors

• individual factors

Individual factors affecting SEC

• education, work experience, skills, talents, and networks

structural/ascriptive factors affecting SEC

• parent’s education and income

• parental investment & family networks/connections

• historical factors & institutional factors (genocide, social services)

what determines socioeconomic position

determined by a combination of individual and structural factors, and some luck

social inequality

the differential and unequal distribution of goods, services, resources, and power that creates a hierarchal social system

levels of inequality

macro and micro level inequality

macro level inequality

structrual inequalities affecting large segments of the population

micro level inequality

effect of inequality on an individual

social stratification

occurs when inequality becomes ingrained in the social system, ranking individuals or groups hierarchically based on shared characteristics (ex. social classes)

income

amount of money earned over time , including revenue from employment, investments, retirement funds, govt assistance, or a third party

household income

the total income earned by members of a household

income inequality

the unequal distribution of income among individuals or households

gini index/gini coefficient

a measure of social inequality on a scale of 0-1. higher score = greater inequality

• 0 = perfect income equality (everyone has the same income)

• 1 = perfect income inequality (all income owned by one person)

Factors contributing to rising inequality

1. shifts in labour market (technological change & globalization)

2. decline of worker institutions

3. primacy of wealth-generating assets (housing & investment)

4. erosion of policy and social programs

intersectionality

Kimberle Crenshaw - overlap of social categories (race, class, gender) creating layers of inequality - the experience of intersecting inequalities is greater than sum of their parts

Conflict theory

those with higher status enjoy more privileges (prestige, power, access to resources, etc.) while facing less social exclusion

habitus

habits, skills, and dispositions acquired based on life experiences, reinforcing social inequality by creating class positions

cultural capital

traits and preferences acquired based on one’s social class

education

key factor in social mobility - higher education = better, higher paying occupation

occupation

major component of income and wealth inequality - most prestigious occupations require high levels of education

tax systems

taxation can solidify existing inequality

progressive taxation

taxes increase as income increases

redistribution

transferring funds to programs that help reduce income inequality

regressive taxation

everyone pays the same tax rate regardless of income

minimum wage

lowest wage allowed by law

absolute poverty

deprivation of basic human needs (food, water, sanitation, health, shelter)

relative poverty

deprivation compared to average standard of living in a society - considered poor if standard of living falls below most people’s standard of living

social mobility

process where and individual or family moves from one social stratum (class) to another - either upward or downward

achievement based mobility

open system - mobility happens through talent and merit

ascription based mobility

closed system - status determined at birth, little to no mobility 

caste system

individuals are born into social positions and remain there for life

intragenerational mobility

change in social position during a person’s own lifetime (upgrading education, becoming more successful)

absolute mobility

indicates whether a person is doing well compared to previous income

intergenerational mobility

change in social position that occurs between generations

IGE - Intergenerational Income Elasticity

measure that compares the incomes of two parents with those of their children when the children become adults - to find out how much a parent’s income influences a child’s income

relative mobility

indicates whether a person has moved up or down the social strata compared to others (peers)

key factors contributing to upward mobility

1. family background

2. education

3. structural/policy

4. intersectionality

5. individual traits (genetics and other traits)

race

status cue - indicator fundamentally linket to physical characteristics like skin color, hair texture, and ancestry

race in science

not real biologically or genetically - more similarities than difference among humans, impossible to categorize based on race

race as a construct

no biological differences exist, racial categories change over time and are dependent on context

social construct

an element of the social world that is a product of particular cultural and historical contexts maintained by people and institutions

ethnicity

shared culture, ancestry, history, language, and religion

scientific racism

racial hierarchy justified by science, basis for historical violence and injustice (nazi party)

Richard Lewontin

established that there was more genetic variation among people of the same race than between those in supposedly separate races

why is race a social construct

1. race categories vary and change over time

2. race categories vary by location

3. context and environment play a role in outcomes attributed to race

prejudice

negatively judging people based on their group membership (ethnicity, race, sexuality, gender, etc.)

discrimination

negative actions taken against group of people based on their group membership

traditional racism

overt, hostile individual acts of discrimination (lynching, hate crimes, apartheid)

modern racism

rejection of overt discrimination but includes more covert expressions of prejudice and attitudes that blame poor outcomes on cultural values or individual efforts

implicit bias

favorable or unfavorable attitudes that unconsciously shape out understandings and actions, often favoring one’s own in-group

systemic racism/institutional racism

macro level discrimination embedded in institutions or systems

redlining

systematic denial of services, often through pricing, particularly in residential neighborhoods with a high proportion of minority residents

critical race theory (CRT)

racism is ingrained in the social structure and institutional racism is a dominant aspect of culture

markers of “otherness”

features like skin color, names, countries of origin, and religious markers which can become visible markers of “otherness” for racialized and ethnic minorities

sex

term used to describe biological attributes distinguishing male and female bodies- including genitalia, chromosomes, and hormones

sex assignment

looking at newborn’s genitalia, assigning role

Gender

learned through socialization - an understanding of expectations of appearance, behaviors, roles, and traits developed through interactions with family, friends peers, teachers, and mass media

gender role socialization

process of learning gender, hinging on the belief that males and females are different and distinct

Binary/dichotomy

referring to only two options - relied on to categorize individuals into sex and gender categories

2 common components of gender

masculine and feminine

gender roles

expectations for the behavior of men and women (playing sports = masculine, parenting = feminine)

gender expression

outward presentation of gender, including clothing style, color, hairstyle, and makeup - often percieved as masculine and feminine

gender identity

an inward sense of an individual’s gender that is not visisble to others

genderqueer

an experience of gender identity beyond the man and woman gender binary - belief that gender is not fixed and identity may vary over time

two spirit

indigenous north american gender identity blending feminine and masculine spirits, sometimes called a third gender

transgender

gender identity differing from sex assignment at birth

cisgender

gender identity corresponding with sex assigned at birth

sexuality

identity based on attraction to gender(s) and desire

intersex

individuals born with sex characteristics like chromosomes, genitalia, or internal reproductive organs which are either ambiguous or do not fit the male-female binary

Sex Role Theory - Talcott Parsons

theory that males and females are socialized into different family roles: instrumental (male) and expressive (female), and that they serve a necessary role for the function of the family unit and society

• Instrumental role: males provide financial support and discipline for the family.

• Expressive role: females care for emotional needs, nurture children, and manage domestic labor.

gender performativity

gender expression and behavior is not determined biologically- instead is a process of socialization and performance to conform to society

Hegemonic Masculinity

performance of masculinity associated with being well-dressed, attractive, strong, white, wealthy, and successful - supporting the idea of dominant men over women

Complicit masculinity

performance of masculinity engaged in by those who will never achieve hegemonic masculinity - generally gain from the ranking of men over women, enjoying social benefit of being men

Marginalized masculinity

performance of masculinity with the intersection of factors like race, social class, ethnicity, etc., generally not regarded as hegemonic

Subordinated masculinity

performance of masculinity by men barred from being hegemonic - association to femininity and queerness, a rejection of hegemonic masculinity

Gender wage gap

a difference in average earnings between men and women, where women are paid less than men for similar work through hourly or annual wages. Larger for disabled and BIPOC women

Occupational segregation

refers to the concentration of men and women in different occupations leading to unequal status and pay

horizontal segregation

where women are often concentrated in lower paid, less secure fields - referred to as the 5 C’s

the 5 C’s

occupations fitting into

• caring

• clerical

• catering

• cashiering

• cleaning

vertical segregation (glass ceiling)

an invisible barrier preventing women from advanding into the highest positions of corporate and political power

unpaid care work (the second shift)

domestic labour (childcare, housework, elder care) performed by women after their paid workday is over

educational attainment

the highest level of education a person has completed, typically measured by the highest degree, diploma, or certificate they have earned

the boys school underachievement gap

boys being less likely than girls to underperform in core subjects, invest less time and effort into schoolwork, and express more negative attitudes toward school

the stem gap

phenomenon where despite higher overall attainment, girls and women remain underrepresented in STEM fields

Gender based violence (GBV)

any act that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering because of the victim’s gender and/or expectations of their role in society

Intimate partner violence (IPV)

violence against current or previous spouse or dating partner

Femicide

the homicide of women and girls

Intimate femicide

homicide of women and girls committed by an intimate partner

social institutions and gender index (SIGI) (OECD)

measures discrimination across 108 countries in 5 domains:

• family and marriage practices

• physical or reproductive integrity

• biases towards sons and against daughters

• access to resources and services

• restrictions in politics and public spaces

Gender development index (GDI)

measures disparities between men and women along 3 dimensions:

• health

• knowledge

• living standards

Alfred Kinsey

refuted Freud’s claim that the clitoris and clitoral orgasms were inferior and immature to vaginal orgasms, defining it as a center of pleasure anf orgasm for women

sexuality as a social construct

changes with context and time

sexuality

broad term referring to sexual identity, sexual practices, sexual attractiveness, and sexual desire

sexual orientation

refers to the direction of a person’s erotic and romantic attraction

bisexual

sexually attracted to either sex

heterosexual

attracted to someone of the opposite sex

homosexual

attracted to someone of the same sex

gay

term used for homosexual men