Ancient Greece Exam 2

The debate at Corinth: Corinth, Athens, and Sparta discuss whether to go to war 

Invited by Corinth, representatives of the cities in the Peloponnesian League gathered in Sparta in 432 to try to talk the Spartans into war with Athens.

Corinthian argument for war

The Corinthian delegates were the most vocal in their demands for action against Athens. They made the following arguments:

• Condemnation of Spartan inaction: The Corinthians harshly criticized Sparta for its hesitation and isolationism, portraying it as naive to the broader Greek world and Athens' ambitions.

• Accusation of Athenian aggression: They argued that Athens had already broken the Thirty Years' Peace and was building an empire that threatened the safety of all of Greece.

• Contrast of national characters: The Corinthians emphasized the stark contrast between the two hegemons. They painted the Athenians as innovative, restless, and quick to exploit any advantage, while the Spartans were slow to act and wedded to their traditional ways.

• Forcing Sparta's hand: The Corinthian threats to break with Sparta and find a new ally were a powerful diplomatic gambit to force the Spartans to declare war.

Athenian argument for peace

The Athenian envoys, speaking next, did not seek to defend every action but instead focused on pragmatism to preserve the peace.

• Defense of the empire: They justified the Athenian Empire as one born out of necessity and the natural human desire for expansion, arguing that any state in their position would have done the same.

• Willingness for arbitration: The Athenians pointed out that they had offered to submit to arbitration, the procedure mandated by the peace treaty, but the Spartans had refused, partly out of fear of alienating Corinth.

• Warning of war's uncertainty: The envoys warned the Spartans against underestimating the cost and unpredictability of a war with a great naval power like Athens.

The Spartan decision :The Spartans ultimately voted to go to war, not simply because of the explicit treaty violations, but, as Thucydides notes, out of a fear of the growing Athenian power.

Thirty Years Peace

a treaty signed in 446/445 BC between the Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta that ended the First Peloponnesian War. It established a truce and allowed both powers to recognize each other's spheres of influence: Athens would control its Delian League, and Sparta would lead the Peloponnesian League. However, the peace was often violated and lasted only about 15 years before hostilities resumed, leading to the Second Peloponnesian War. 

Pericles’ funeral oration

a persuasive speech that uses the funeral of fallen soldiers as a platform to praise Athens and promote its democratic ideals, military superiority, and cultural values to rally support for the ongoing Peloponnesian War

Has themes of praise for Athens, Athenian democracy, Athens’ superiority over its rivals

The Melian Dialogue

Debate between Athens and Melos, a neutral city-state

• Athenian position:

  The Athenians, acting as a conquering power, are direct and pragmatic. They dismiss appeals to justice, arguing that it only applies between equals. For them, the only relevant considerations are power and security, which require them to subjugate Melos to prevent future dissent within their empire. 

• Melian position:

  The Melians appeal to the principles of neutrality and justice, and their envoys hope for aid from their Spartan kin. They believe resistance is a matter of honor and that chance, or "fortune," could still lead to a victory. 

• Outcome:

  The Athenians reject the Melians' arguments, viewing their reliance on hope and justice as illogical and foolhardy. The dialogue ends with the implication that the Melians' defiance was a mistake, as they were ultimately overwhelmed by Athens. 

The Sicilian Expedition. Why did the Athenians make this plan? What happened in Sicily?

Athenians launched the Sicilian Expedition due to a desire to conquer Syracuse for resources and manpower to win the ongoing war against Sparta, and to fulfill an obligation to their ally Egesta. The expedition resulted in a catastrophic defeat for Athens, as their forces were eventually defeated by a combination of internal leadership issues, the timely arrival of Spartan reinforcements, and a loss of initiative, leading to the near-total destruction of the Athenian army and navy. 

Why did Athenians make this plan? : to gain advantage in the war against Sparta, to fulfill an obligation to Egesta, 

The Athenian empire/Delian League: How did Athens treat less powerful city-states, including its own allies?

The Delian League was an alliance of ancient Greek city-states, founded in 478 BCE, primarily to defend against the Persian Empire. Led by Athens, the league eventually transformed into an Athenian empire. Athens treated less powerful city-states like subjects rather than equals.

Why was the Peloponnesian War so long and complicated?

a strategic stalemate between Athens' naval dominance and Sparta's military might, which resulted in a war of attrition. This was prolonged by events like the devastating Athenian plague, a lengthy and unsuccessful Sicilian Expedition, and the involvement of foreign powers like Persia, which provided crucial support to Sparta and extended the conflict's duration

What were the main factors that led to the Spartan victory over the Athenians?

Sparta's improved naval strength after receiving Persian funds and cut off imports, and Athens's strategic blunders, most notably the disastrous expedition to Syracuse.

Social history: examples of sources that tell us about ordinary people in ancient Greece

Primary Sources for Ancient Greek social history
• literature
• legal and political speeches
• inscriptions
• archaeology (buildings and artifacts)
• visual art (especially images on pottery)

Athenian democracy and the critique of Athenian democracy in “Old Oligarch”

by arguing it's a distasteful system that elevates the ignorant, self-interested masses, but it is nevertheless successful because it is designed to serve the interests of the poor majority who power the state, particularly the navy

The use of lottery in the democracy (the article “Tyche’s Force: Lottery and Chance in Greek Government)

sortition (selection by lot) was a widespread practice and a fundamental component of the democratic system, used for selecting various public officials and bodies such as the Council of 500 and juries. The use of the lottery was rooted in philosophical and practical reasons, including promoting egalitarianism by ensuring equal chances for all citizens, preventing corruption by removing human choice, and encouraging civic engagement

Ancient Greek religion: different sources (text, objects/artwork) that tell us about ancient religious beliefs and practices

Mythology: can explain natural phenomena, related to religion, but not the same as a religious scripture (various versions of stories)
• Animal sacrifice and festivals
• Banquets, athletics, theater, music as offerings to gods
• Oracles: advice from gods (usually Apollo)
• Concerned mostly about safety/health/prosperity
• Some festivals were private: “mystery cults” and may have involved teachings about afterlife

The excerpt from Plato’s symposium: according to Diotima, what is the connection between love and philosophy?

love is the force that drives the philosopher to seek wisdom, making them a "lover of wisdom". Love is the intermediary between ignorance and knowledge, as a person who loves wisdom (is a philosopher) is not wise but also not ignorant—they are on a journey to acquire knowledge and understanding. This love begins with the attraction to physical beauty and, through a process of "ascent," becomes a love for spiritual and intellectual beauty, ultimately leading to a love for wisdom itself. 

Aside from their philosophical discussions, what does Plato’s Euthyphro tells us about life in Athens?

the dialogue reveals the tensions between traditional Athenian religion and emerging intellectual thought. 

Greek theater: what were some of the topics of the tragedies and comedies? What was the role of theater in Greek culture?

served as a religious ritual and a crucial part of civic life, used to explore complex moral and political issues, foster community, and honor the gods

focused on serious themes like fate, betrayal, and the relationship between humans and gods, often featuring legendary heroes.

In Aristophanes’ comedy Lysistrata, how do the women plan to force the men to end the Peloponnesian War?

by going on a sex strike

Delian League

an alliance of ancient Greek city-states, founded in 478 BCE, that was led by Athens to protect against the Persian Empire.

long walls

a series of defensive walls, most famously connecting Athens to its main harbor at Piraeus, creating a protected corridor to the sea. They were a crucial part of Athenian military strategy, allowing the city to receive supplies by sea even when under land-based siege by being able to survive without relying on its land-based resources alone.

Thucydides

ancient Greek historian and general, best known for writing History of the Peloponnesian War. His work is considered a foundational text of "scientific history" because he applied strict standards of evidence, including eyewitness accounts and his own experiences, to analyze a major conflict between Athens and Sparta

Debate at Corinth

a series of speeches made by Corinthian delegates in Sparta in 432 BCE, which urged the Spartans to go to war with Athens

Mytilene revolt

an attempt by the city of Mytilene to break away from the Athenian Empire during the Peloponnesian War

ultimately suppressed by Athens, which then held a famous debate about how to punish Mytilene.

Nicias

general during the Peloponnesian War, particularly known for his leadership during the Archidamian War and his rivalry with the aggressive Cleon of Athens. After Cleon's death, Nicias successfully negotiated the Peace of Nicias with Sparta in 421 BCE, temporarily halting hostilities.

Alcibiades

Athenian statesman and general during the Peloponnesian War, known for frequently switching of allegiances between Athens, Sparta, and Persia.

• Alcibiades advises Sparta to block Athenians' access to their silver mines and instigate revolts in its empire/alliance

• Sparta sent Alcibiades to Persia to get money for Spartan navy

• Alcibiades acted as a double agent (411-407) and stalled until a Persian governor realized what was going on

◦ Alcibiades asked friends to install oligarchy in Athens so he could return with Persian money/ support

‣ The Persians used money to pit Greeks against each other

◦ Alcibiades returned to Athens in 407, lawsuits against him dropped

◦ 406: led an expedition against Sparta, failed. Did not return to Athens, moved back to Persia

◦ supposedly assassinated by Spartans in 404

Sicilian Expedition

an Athenian military expedition to Sicily, which took place from 415–413 BC during the Peloponnesian War between Athens on one side and Sparta, Syracuse and Corinth on the other. The expedition ended in a devastating defeat for the Athenian forces, severely affecting Athens.

• Initial goals fail:

  The expedition initially aimed to quickly conquer Syracuse, a wealthy city-state in Sicily. However, the campaign bogged down in a protracted and indecisive struggle. 

• Spartan intervention:

  Syracuse requested aid from Sparta, which sent a fleet to Sicily. This shifted the balance of power against Athens. 

• Naval defeat:

  The Athenian fleet was eventually defeated in a series of naval battles near Syracuse. With their navy crippled, the Athenians were forced to abandon their ships and attempt a retreat by land. 

• Catastrophic overland retreat:

  The retreating Athenian army faced constant harassment from Syracusan and Spartan forces. The army was trapped, and after a failed attempt to escape, they surrendered or were annihilated. 

• Total destruction:

  The expedition resulted in the loss of the vast majority of Athens's military force. At least 40,000 Athenians were killed or captured, and many of their leaders were executed. 

Night battle at Epipolae

• During the Peloponnesian War, Athens launched a massive expedition to Sicily with the goal of conquering Syracuse, a Spartan-allied city. 

• The Night Assault:

  As part of the siege, Athenian forces under General Demosthenes launched a surprise night attack on the Syracusan counter-wall on the Epipolae plateau. 

• The Disaster:

  The attack was a failure, largely due to the confusion and disorientation of fighting at night. 

  • Confusion: Soldiers could not clearly identify friend from foe by moonlight. 

  • Communication breakdown: The lack of clear communication led to disarray. 

  • Chaotic fighting: The confusion resulted in a chaotic and disorganized melee, a stark contrast to the more organized daytime battles of the time. 

• Consequences:

  The failure of the assault was a major turning point in the Sicilian Expedition, which ultimately led to the total defeat of the Athenian forces. 

Lottery (in the democracy)

sortition was a primary method for selecting public officials and jurors to ensure broad citizen participation. This process was seen as uniquely democratic, as it was believed to prevent corruption and elitism by randomly choosing from a pool of eligible, willing citizens, a method that extended to many governmental bodies but excluded certain expert roles like generals. A sophisticated device called a kleroterion was used to randomly select citizens for the council (𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒), court juries, and other offices. 

kleroteria (lottery machine)

a randomization device used in ancient Athens to select citizens for public office, state positions, and jury duty through a lottery system. It worked by having citizens place identification tokens into a stone slab with rows of slots, then dropping a mixture of black and white balls down a tube attached to the side. A row of tokens was either selected for service (if a white ball was released) or discarded (if a black ball was released) until the required number of citizens was chosen

Old Oligarch

the modern name for the anonymous author of a 5th-century BCE text titled The Constitution of the Athenians, which was preserved among the writings of Xenophon.

the power and success of a city-state, like Athens, comes from the common working class, particularly the shipwrights and rowers, not the wealthy elite. The author uses this observation to argue that a democracy where the poor have power is more beneficial to the city's naval strength and overall power than an oligarchy ruled by the rich. He suggests that the working class is essential for military and economic strength, so the state is better run by them.  

• Naval power is key:

  The Old Oligarch emphasizes that a city's power is dependent on its navy, which is manned by the poor and working class. 

• The common people are essential:

  He argues that the wealth and resources of the rich are built upon the labor of the working class, who are the ones who physically build and sail the ships that are crucial to the city's power. 

• Democracy benefits the city:

  From this perspective, the author takes a pragmatic view, suggesting that a democratic system that empowers the common people is more effective for the city's own interests than an oligarchy that excludes them. 

Platonic love

named after the philosopher Plato, involved a journey starting from physical attraction but ultimately moving towards a higher form of love that connects one to universal ideals.

Socrates

classical Greek philosopher from Athens who lived from 469–399 B.C. He is considered a founder of Western philosophy, known for his method of asking questions to stimulate critical thinking. Since he wrote nothing, his teachings are known primarily through the writings of his student, Plato. He was sentenced to death for impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens.  

Plato’s Apology and the trial of Socrates

a defense speech given by Socrates during his 399 BCE trial in Athens, where he was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth. The text is a formal justification, not an apology for wrongdoing, and portrays Socrates' unwavering commitment to his philosophical mission to seek truth and virtue, even at the cost of his life.

He denies the charges against him and say that if anything, they should be rewarding him

Plato’s Euthyphro

a Socratic dialogue where Socrates questions a man named Euthyphro about the definition of piety (holiness). The conversation, which takes place before Socrates' trial, highlights the difficulty of defining piety and leads to the famous Euthyphro dilemma: "Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?". The dialogue concludes without a satisfactory definition, demonstrating the inadequacy of Euthyphro's religious claims and raising lasting questions about the relationship between morality and divinity. 

Plato’s Symposium

a philosophical dialogue that takes place at a drinking party where guests give speeches in praise of Eros (Love)

Socrates relates a conversation he had with Diotima, a wise woman from Mantinea. 

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave (from Republic)

a story about prisoners who have lived their entire lives in a cave, only able to see shadows on a wall which they believe are reality

• The cave:

  Represents the world of appearances and ignorance, where people are trapped by their senses and false beliefs. 

• The shadows:

  The prisoners mistake the shadows projected on the wall for reality, symbolizing the superficial knowledge and illusions people accept as truth. 

• The freed prisoner:

  Symbolizes the philosopher who leaves the cave to seek true knowledge. Their initial pain from the sunlight represents the difficult and painful process of enlightenment. 

• The world outside:

  Represents the intelligible world of true reality and the Forms (perfect, eternal ideals), with the sun symbolizing the ultimate source of truth, the "Form of the Good". 

• The return to the cave:

  The freed prisoner's attempt to educate others is met with resistance, reflecting how society often rejects and is hostile to those who challenge their comfortable, yet false, reality. 

Aristotle’s Politics

The main idea of Aristotle's Politics is that the purpose of the state (𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑠) is to facilitate a "good life" for its citizens by creating a community that promotes their virtue and happiness. He argued that humans are "political animals" who can only achieve their full potential by living in a political community, which should be structured by a constitution to foster the common good, not the rulers' self-interest. 

Oligarchy vs. Aristocracy

• aristocracy: rule by "the best"

• oligarchy: rule by the few (the best become the wealthiest)

In practice, aristocracy can devolve into a self-serving oligarchy, where the ruling class protects its own privilege rather than governing for the common good. 

animal sacrifice

used as offerings to the gods

Delphic Oracle

the ancient Greek oracle of the god Apollo at Delphi, considered the center of the world and one of the most important religious and oracular sites in the ancient world. Its priestess, the Pythia, delivered prophecies, often in a trance-like state, which were then interpreted by priests and greatly influenced major decisions for individuals, city-states, and even empires.  

religious festivals

often dedicated to a specific deity and involving processions, sacrifices, feasts, and games. Key examples include the Panathenaea in Athens for Athena, the Dionysia for Dionysus, the Thesmophoria for Demeter, and the great Panhellenic Games (like the Olympics for Zeus).  

votive offerings

gifts left at sacred sites to honor a deity or saint, given either in thanks for answered prayers or to ask for a favor, such as good health or prosperity

small objects like terracotta figurines to large dedications like captured ships. Popular examples include anatomical votives representing body parts to be healed, statues to commemorate victories, and food in pottery vessels

Asklepios

Greek god of healing

• people stayed overnight at temple and were healed through dreams, visions, and medical interventions

Theater of Dionysus

an ancient Greek theatre in Athens.

It was home to the annual spring drama festival where the ancient playwrights—among them Sophocles, Euripides, Aeschylus, and Aristophanes—presented their works in competition. The stone reliefs on the stage depicting scenes from the life of Dionysus

comedy

was one of the final three principal dramatic forms in the theatre of classical Greece; was distinguished from tragedy by its happy endings and use of comically exaggerated character archetypes

tragedy

widely believed to be an extension of the ancient rites carried out in honor of Dionysus, the god of wine and theatre. Tragic plots were most often based upon myths from the oral traditions of archaic epics.

Aristophanes’ Lysistrata

a comedic play by Aristophanes about a group of women who end the Peloponnesian War by withholding sex from their husbands. Led by Lysistrata, the women from various Greek cities, including Sparta and Athens, go on a sex strike until the men agree to peace. As part of the plan, the women also seize the Acropolis, which houses the treasury, to stop the war from being funded.

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex and Antigone

both tragic plays by Sophocles that are set in the same fictional city of Thebes, but they tell different stories that are chronologically linked. Oedipus Rex is about King Oedipus, who discovers he has unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Antigone is a sequel that takes place after Oedipus's death and focuses on his daughter Antigone as she defies the king (her uncle, Creon) to give her brother a proper burial, exploring the conflict between divine and state law. 

When were the Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis?

480/79 BCE

When was the Delian League established?

477 BCE

When was the Peloponnesian War?

431-404 BCE

When was the Plague in Athens?

430 BCE

When was the Sicilian Expedition?

415-413 BCE

When was Sparta’s victory over Athens?

404 BCE

When was the trial and death of Socrates?

399 BCE

ostracism

a political process where citizens could banish a prominent figure for 10 years by voting with shards of pottery (ostraca). The purpose was to protect democracy by removing individuals perceived as too powerful, a threat to civic order, or potential tyrants, without a formal trial.