19. Nazism and the Third Reich;

Hitler and the Rise of Nazism

• Hitler (1889- 1945) was the son of an old customs official who drank too much → his father died when he was 14 years old

• in 1905, when he was 16 → quit school

• moved to Vienna where he tried to survive as a painter, at that time he expressed most and for all hatred of Social Democrats (not yet Jews)

• later onward he moved to Munich

• during WWI → JOINED the German Army, in 1916 he got wounded in his leg and just before the end of the war, he was gassed in a British attack

  → in 3 occasions he was decorated for bravery but his officers found him unfit for promotion to the officers corps

• Hitler’s wartime experience accentuated his fanatical German nationalism and it transformed him into a raging anti-Semitic, as he believed that the Jews had ‘stabbed Germany in the back’

‘stab- in- the-back’ myth

• Germany did not lose WWI militarily but was betrayed from within by traitorous civilians

  • Jews

  • Socialists

  • Communists

  • Democrats

  • other un-german elements

• according to this myth, those groups supposedly:

• → undermined the war effort

  → caused internal unrest (e.g. strikes, revolutions)

  → forced the military to seek an armistice while German troops were still capable

• Hitler blamed Jewish politicians (he called them the "November Criminals") for surrendering and signing this treaty.

• The "stab-in-the-back" myth was a propaganda lie:

  • Germany was militarily defeated, suffering from exhaustion, desertions, and Allied advances.

  • Internal unrest (e.g., strikes and protests) was more a symptom of defeat, not the cause.

  • Jews served in the German military; over 100,000 fought in WWI, and many died in combat.

• The myth became central to Nazi ideology.

• It helped Hitler gain support by channeling public anger and humiliation into hatred of Jews and democratic leaders.

• it laid the foundation for Nazi antisemitism, political violence, and ultimately, the Holocaust

Oswald Spengler’s Untergang des Abendlandes (Decline of the West, 1919).

→ Oswald Spengler - conservative German historian and philosopher

Main Ideas:

• Civilisations go trough life cycles: birth, rise and decline

• Western (European) civilisation was in its period of cultural and moral decay

• only authoritarian leadership, militarisation and nationalism as necessary for renewal

=> Hitler saw Spengler’s pessimism about the West as a validation of his beliefs that Germany has been corrupted by liberalism, socilism and Jewish influence

=> Inspired Hitler's belief in strong, charismatic leadership as a solution to decline.

Hitler became the leader of the recently founded Nazi Party (1920)

• in 1920 = party was renamed as the National Socialistic German Workers’ Party => despite the name it was far-right, nationalistic and anti- Semitic → Hitler took charge of propaganda and gave the party a clear ideological direction

• by mid- 1921 = Hitler had consolidated power and became the undisputed Furhrer (leader) of the party

• using his oratory skills and growing cult of personality to dominate the movement

SA (STURMABTEILUNG) - Parliamentary wing

• created in 1920-21

• PARAMILITARY ORGANISATION

• provided security at Nazi rallies and meetings

• intimidated and violently attacked political opponents, especially communists and socialists

• symbolised the Nazi emphasis on violence, discipline and militarisms

Beer Hall Putch on 9 nov 1923

• Inspired by Mussolini’s March on Rome (1922), Hitler believed he could seize power in a similar fashion.

• Germany was in crisis: economic chaos from hyperinflation and political instability

• on 8-9 nov 1923: Hitler and the Nazis attempted a coup in Munich, Bavaria

• they stormed a beer hall where Bavarian official are meeting and tried to force them to support a march on Berlin

• the coup collapsed after a failed confrontation with police

=> Hitler was arrested and sentenced to 5 years in prison = he served for 1

1925 First Edition of Mein Kampf

• written by Hitler in Prison after the failed Beer Hall Putsch (1923)

• Laid out his core ideology: racial hierarchy, anti- Semitism, anti- Communism and the need of Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe

• included his belief in a strong, authoritarian leader and rejection of democracy

1928 elections and the Nazi Party

• in 1928 the Nazi party won only 2.6% of the national vote

• support was mostly from lower middle- class voters who feared socialism and economic instability

• at this stage= Nazi Party remained a minor fringe movement

Impact of the Great Depression (from 1929)

• the Great depression hit Germany hard due to dependence on US loans

• massive unemployment and poverty (over 6 million jobless by 1932)

• political centre collapsed and extreme parties like Nazis and Communists gained ground

• many desperate voters turned to the Nazis ad a solution to chaos and as defenders against communism

The start of the 3rd Reich

• Sept 1930: elections in which Nazis obtained 18%

• 1932: Presidential elections: Adolf Hitler obtained 13,5 million votes, but he lost against Paul von Hindenburg

• Nov 1932: new elections for the Reichtstag: the Nazis became for the first time the largest party

• 30 January 1933: Hitler became chancellor

How did Hitler consolidate power so quickly after becoming Chancellor in 1933, and what key events enabled this?

Unlike Mussolini (took 3 years to fully control the Italian state) Hitler consolidated power in just three months after becoming Chancellor on 30 January 1933 → using combination of crisis, propaganda and legal manupulation:

Reichstag- building Fire

• 27 feb 1933

• the parliament was set on fire allegedly by a Dutch Communist

• Nazis exploited the fire as evidence of a communist plot to overthrow the government

• this justified repressive action and helped stir public fear

28 Feb 1933 - Reichstag Fire Decree

• President Hindenburg, under Hitler’s pressure signed an emerge decree suspending civil liberties (freedom of speech, press, assembly and privacy)

• allow mass arrests of communists and political opponents, severely weakening opposition ahead of election

Reichstag Elections 5 march 1933

• Nazis won 44% of the vote - not a majority but enough to control parliament with help from conservative allies

• violent intimidation, censorship and suppression of leftist parties helped inflate the Nazi result

23 March 1933- Enabling Act Passed

• Enabling Act gave Hitler full legislative powers bypassing the Reichstag and constitution

• it effectively made Hitler a dictator, allowing him to rule by decree of 4 years

• passed with support from Catholic Centre Party and others under duress and threats

What major events in 1933-34 helped Hitler eliminate remaining opposition and establish totalitarian rule?

May 1933 - Trade unions Dissolved

• independent trade unions were banned and leaders arrested

• replaced by German Labour Front (DAF) controlled by the Nazis

• this removed workers’ ability to organise or protest and brought the entire labour force under state control

30 June 1934: night of the long knives; the SS (originally Hitler’s personal security troops) and Gestapo (the secret police) crushed SA ( whose leaders had grown too powerful and radical)

• Ernst Rohm - head of the SA executed along with hundreds of others

• reassured the german military who saw SA as rival and showed Hitler’s willingness to use lethal force to maintain control

August 1934 - Hitler Becomes Fürher

• upon President Hindenburg’s death, Hitler merged the offices of Chancellor and President and declare himself as Fürher

• The German Army swore a personal oath of loyality to Hitler, not constitution

• this marked the end of the Weimar Republic and the begginning of Hitler’s absolute dictotorship

How did the Nazi regime addressed the economy and social policy between 1933-1936?

→ Food Shortages until 1936

• early Nazi years continued food scarcity, especially for urban workers

• agricultural policies focused on self- sufficiency but had limited short-term impact

→ Economic Boom (GDP up 81%)

• massive growth from 1933 to 1936 with GDP rising 81%

• large-scale public workers projects (e.g. Autobahns) and military rearmament

• unemployment dropped sharply, boosting public support

→ Rise in Consumer Goods and Welfare

• introduction of state- sponsored benefits such as paid holidays and leisure programs

• aimed to win over the working class and promote national unity

→Internal Competition of Government Agencies

• Unlike Stalin’s centralised Sovied model, Nazi Germany was marked by internal competition among overlapping government agencies

• Created chaotic but dynamic policy implementation, driven by competition to fulfill Hitler’s vague directives

How did the Nazi regime institutionalise anti-Semitism between 1933-1938?

→ Anti-Semitism as the cornerstone of Nazi ideology

• central to Nazi beliefs: Jews were blamed for Germany’s decline, WWI defeat and economic troubles

• Anti-Semitism was presented as a racial struggle, not just religious or cultural bias

→ 1935- Nuremberg Laws

• stripped Jews of German citizenship and legal rights

• banned marriage or sexual relations between Jews and ‘Aryans’

• Jews were gradually excluded from public life, jobs and education

• Later, Jews were required to wear yellow starts for identification

→ Nov, 9 1938 - Kristallnacht (‘Night of Broken Glass’)

• Nationwide, state- organised pogrom: synagogues burned, Jewish shops booted, and 30 000 Jews arrested

• Turning point: open violence replaced legal discrimination

→ Emigration Obstructed

• While some Jews tried to flee Germany, many were trapped

• Other countries (including Germany’s neighbours and Western democracies) closed their borders, limiting Jewish escape

The Spanish Civil War

• 1923-30 Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera; a military general who seized power with the king’s blessing

• 1931: Republicans won the elections and installed the Second Spanish Republic = democratic republic was proclaimed = forcing King Alfonso XIII to flee

• 1931-33: Government of Manuel Azaña; chaos ensured as unions and anarchists argue that his reforming measures were not radical enough:

  • implemented land reforms, military cuts and secular education

  • his reforms alienated both conservative and radical leftists (unions, anarchists) => leading to political instability and strikes

• Early 1936: Popular Front won the elections but fell apart soon afterwards

  • a coalition of leftist parties (socialists, communists and republicans)

• 17 July 1936: Military insurrection against the government

  • Fragile loyalist alliance:

    → trade unions in Madrid

    → anarchists and peasant workers in Catalonia and Andalusia

    → enthousiast but poorly trained brigades well organised Stalinist communists against the Trotkists of the POUM (Party of Marxist Unification)

• Support of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany for the Nationalists; German and Italian Bombs on Guernica (26 april 1937)

July 17 1936: Military Uprising

• conservative generals launched a military coup against the Republican Government

• the country splits vs Nationalist (rebels) and Republican (loyalist) zones => sparking the Spanish Civil War

The Fragmented Republican Alliance

• Trade unions in Madrid

• Anarchist collectives in Catalonia and rural Andalusia

• Stalin communists (disciplined but authoritarian)

• Opposed by Trotskyist of POUM, leading to infighting among leftiests

=> these internal conflicts weakened the Republican war effort

Fascist Foreign Support for the Nationalists

• Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy sent planes, troops and weapons

• Guernica bombing (26 april 1937) by German Luftwaffe and Italian aircraft:

  • first large-scale aerial bombardment of civilians in Europe

  • Immortalised by Picasso’s painting Guernica: symbolising the brutality

Fought strategy Spanish civil war

• Spanish Civil War was fought in strategy unseen in Europe since 17th c Thirty Years War: at least 58 000 people killed of about whom only 1/6 on the battlefield

• about 200 000 loyalties excluded by nationalists and about the same number at the hands of loyalists or in prison (in Catalonia more than 1000 clergy and nuns perished)

Why did the Spanish Civil War polarise Europe politically?

• the war was seen as proxy conflict between fascism and anti-fascism

• supporters of the Spanish Republic viewed the as part of a broader fight against international fascism

• it became symbolic battleground for the ideological struggles that had intensified after WWI

Who joined the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War and why?

• Volunteers from around the world came to support the Republic

  → German and Italian anti-fascist exiles

  → 20 000 Britons and Irish

  → the American Abraham Lincoln Brigade

  → around 3000 Belgians and 700 Dutchmen

=> motivated by anti-fascist ideals and belief in international solidarity

How did the Spanish Civil War influence literature and art?

Inspired major works by key 20th c, artists and WRITERS

• Earnest Hemingway - For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)

• George Orwell- Homage to Catalonia (1938), based on his time fighting for POUM

• Pablo Picasso - Guernica, a powerful mural condemning fascist violence

France: Longstanding Far- Right Anti- Republican Tradition

• since 19th c. France had a strong current of far-right, anti-republican sentiment, opposing liberal democracy and secularism

  • General Boulanger: almost overthrew the Republic in the 1880s

  • Dreyfus Affairs (1894- 1906): polorized France and stirred anti-Semitism

  • Action Française: a royalist, ultra- nationalist movement led by Charles Maurras

Post WWI Revival of the Far Right = Croix -de - Feu

• after WWI, far- right groups were inspired by Italian fascism

• the Croix- de- Feu (Cross of Fire) nationalist veterans’ organisation gained popularity in the 1930s

• thought initially conservative and legalist, it evolved toward authoritarian, anti-parliamentary ideas, becoming a major player in the 1930s street politics

France and Immigration in the 1920s-30s

• France had a tradition in accepting political exiles, including Italians, Russians and Spanish Republicans

• After WWI labour shortages in mining, agriculture and industry led to mass immigration

• by the late 1930s, 7.5% of the French population were immigrants = the highest rate in Europe at the time

• the influx would later fuel social tension and far-right backlash especially during economic crises

What caused political instability in France during the 1930s, and how did the Left responeded?

Weakness of the Third Republic

• the Third Republic (1870-1940) was plagued by frequent government changes and political fragmentation

• The Great Depression hit France later than other countries but had severe effects, leading to rising unemployment and social unrest

• Successive governments failed to respond effectively, worsening public discontent

6 Feb 1834 → Stavisky Affair and Right- Wing Riots

• a financial scandal involving Serge Stavisky, a jewish financier with political ties, triggering public outrage

• Right- wing leagues (some proto-fascist) organised violent anti-government protests in Paris

• These riots shook the Republic and raised fears of a possible coup

Formation of Front Populaire (Popular Front)

• in response to the growing threat from the far right, socialists and radicals formed a united front

• with communist support, the coalition aimed to defend democracy and implement progressive reforms

• it marked the first time the Left ruled France in coalition => symbolising resistance to fascism

Front Populaire

• clear victory of Front Populaire at the elections in May 1936

  → but the communists sustained the ensuing government from outside

• Leon Blum (1872- 1950) became the new prime minister → the first socialist and the first Jew in the function

  → he had to sustain virulent anti-semitic criticism

Immediately after the Front Populaire took power => a wave of strikes swept over France; they ended in the Mattignon agreements: 40 hours work week - pay raises and pad holidays'!!

cracking

• the capital fled France, the Franc was devaluated several times.

• In March 1937 - police fired on workers protesting against de Croix- de- Feu

• Blum forced to declare pause in his reform programme

• The Front Populaire started to unravel

→ Mounting International tension: Spanish Civil war

→ in June 1937, having lost the confidence of the Senate, Blum had to resign. Centrist and centre- right governments followed until the outbreak of the war