Weather + Climate Exam 1

9/17/25 (Wednesday)

Scientific Method

1. question

2. hypothesis

3. prediction

4. experiment

5. analysis

6. conclusion

Scientific Theory

scientific hypotheses from repeated tests and have not been contradicted and are generally accepted as fact

Condensation Nuclei

small, airborne particles that enhance condensation

Standard Atmosphere

mean structure of the atmosphere with regard to temperature and pressure

Troposphere

1st layer, -6.5 C / 1000m, thinnest layer, 8-20 km, weather sphere, temperature decrease with height

Inversion

temperature increases with increase in altitude

Stratosphere

2nd layer, inversion layer, temperature increase with height, little weather

Ozone Layer

area of stratosphere where ozone is abundant

Mesosphere

3rd layer 60-80 km, coldest layer, decrease temperature with height

Thermosphere

top layer, extremely high temperature and energy, temperature increase with height

Photodissociation

splitting of molecules into submolecules or atoms by radiation (ex. uv radiation dissociates molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen)

Outgassing

emission of gasses that accompanies volcanic eruptions

Fronts

transition zone between 2 dissimilar air masses (ex. differing temperature, moisture, or density)

Relative Humidity

measure of amount of water vapor in air as a fraction of saturation (%) - depends on moisture content and temperature of air

Dew Point Temperature

temperature at which saturation will occur due to sufficient cooling

Isobars

line on weather map connecting points of equal pressure

Station Models

weather maps for individual locations depicting temperature, dew point, pressure, and other meteorological information

Types of Data Found on Weather Maps

distributions of temperature, dew point, winds, clouds, sea-level air pressure

Carbon Dioxide

variable gas 1 carbon 2 oxygen

Methane

1 carbon and 4 hydrogen

Nitrogen

inert gas 78% of atmosphere

Water Vapor

colorless, odorless, very small % of atmosphere

Aphelion

farthest from sun (July 3rd) 94 million miles

Beam Spreading

radiation distributed over large horizontal area as angle of incidence departs from vertical - reduces intensity of radiation absorption

Blackbody

object or substance that is perfectly efficient at absorbing radiation - do not exist in nature they are an ideal

Buoyancy

tendency of air parcel to rise because it is less dense than surrounding air

Conduction

heat transfer through solids - no significant movement of molecules

Convection

heat transfer through liquid or gas - fluid flow

Convection Zone

internal layer of sun where upwelling gas carries energy from core towards surface

Core

interior of sun nuclear fusion produces energy radiated to earth

Winter Solstice

sun overhead at 23.5 S latitude (December 21) northern hemisphere vs southern hemisphere

Electromagnetic Layers

ozone, magnetosphere, ionosphere

Emissivity

how efficient something is at emitting radiation (%)

Flares

intensely hot eruptions on solar surface

Granules

tops of convection cells seen on surface of sun bubbles on surface of boiling water

Graybody

bodies are not 100% efficient at absorbing or radiating energy (all bodies)

Insolation

incident or incoming solar radiation

Inverse Square Law

equation showing radiating intensity decreases with square distance from emitter

Joule

0.25 calories energy needed to accelerate 1kg at 1m/sec//sec across distance

Summer Solstice

sun overhead at 23.5 N altitude northern vs southern hemisphere

Kinetic Energy

energy of motion

Longwave Radiation

infrared radiation (out)

Vernal Equinox

sun is overhead at equator (March 21) also called spring equinox in northern hemisphere

Nuclear Fusion

thermonuclear process when extreme heat and pressure causes atoms to combine forming new elements

Photon

particle responsible for electromagnetic radiation

Photosphere

part of sun that emits most energy reaching earth “visible” part of sun

Potential Energy

energy in reverse

Radiation Zone

layer of sun where energy moves outward by radiation of core to convection zone

Autumnal Equinox

sun is overhead at equator (September 21) also called fall equinox in northern hemisphere

Shortwave Radiation

electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than 4 micrometers (in)

Solar Constant

amount of radiation reaching top of atmosphere when earth is average distance from sun and is consistent over time (1376 W/m2)

Solar Declination

latitude of overhead sun, place someone would go to find the sun directly overhead

Wavelength

distance between successive peaks of a wave or between 2 corresponding points long wave train

Radiation Quantity

amount of energy transferred

3 Ways Radiation is Expressed

vacuum of space, wave amplitude, micrometers

Electromagnetic Radiation Scale

1. gamma rays

2. x-rays

3. ultraviolet rays

4. visible light

5. infrared rays

6. radio waves

7. am

Perihelion

closest to sun (January 3rd) 91 million miles

Earth’s Average Temperature

59 F

September 21st + March 21st

autumnal equinox (northern hemisphere)

vernal equinox (southern hemisphere)

vertical solar ray is at equator

circle of illumination is tangent with poles

December 21st + June 21st

winter solstice (northern hemisphere)

summer solstice (southern hemisphere)

circle of illumination is tangent with circles

vertical solar ray at tropic of capricorn

parallelism of axis

Depletion

losing energy as it moves through atmosphere

Rayleigh Scattering

scattering by particles and gases, blue skies, every direction

Mie Scattering

scattering by dust, salt, bacteria, ash, forward direction only, hazy skies

Non-Selective Scattering

large agents, white, clouds, waves, waterfalls

Albedo

% reflectivity of object - color dependent

Thickness of Atmosphere

atmospheric density decreases with height - majority of mass is contained in thin layer near surface

How Gases and Particles are Exchanged

biological and physical processes - photosynthesis, respiration, volcanic activity

Chlorofluorocarbons

chlorine atoms react with ozone in stratosphere to produce chlorine monoxide

Air Density

air near surface is more dense than air further above (mean free path)

Ionosphere

located in mesosphere and thermosphere, ion abundance, cause aurora borealis and aurora australis

Solar Radiation is transferred…

to earth’s surface where it is absorbed

Invisible Plane Earth Revolves Around the Sun on

ecliptic plane

Solstices

Winter + Summer

Equinoxes

Vernal + Autumnal

Atmosphere

mixture of gas molecules, small particles of solid and liquid, falling precipitation

Meteorology

study of atmosphere and processes we call weather

aerosols

any liquid or solid particle other than water that exists in the atmosphere

surface air is ______ than above air

more dense

atmospheric gas _______ with height

thins out

Wave Quality

radiation wavelnegth

Electromagnetic Energy

infinite number of wavelengths

Earth and Sun are Similar to…

blackbodies

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

hotter objects emit more energy than cooler ones- energy is proportional to temperature

Wein’s Law

hotter objects radiate at shorter wavelengths than cooler ones

Theory

how and why something occurs (explanation)

Hypothesis

testable statement

Law

what occurs and never varies

Climate Controls

latitude, continent and ocean position, atmosphere and ocean circulation, topography, local features

3 Ways Energy is Moved

reflected, absorbed, transmitted