Cultural anthropology 2

dr. hartigan

Social Organization

The culturally specific ways people are grouped, either as relatives or non-relatives, which in turn defines and shapes patterns of interaction within those cultures.

Genealogical Authority

A system of tracing ancestry often linked to power structures and sacred or supernatural ancestors. In modern contexts, it is typically governmental, establishing identity and rights for individuals.

Exogamy and Endogamy

Exogamy: The practice of marrying outside one’s defined social group.

Endogamy: The practice of marrying strictly within one’s defined social group, which serves to maintain group boundaries.

Kinship Terms (Claude Lévi-Strauss)

According to Claude Lévi-Strauss, these culturally defined labels for relatives operate structurally like phonemes in language. Their meaning is derived from the system of relationships they embody rather than purely biological connections, highlighting their cultural and social significance.

Incest Taboo

A culturally significant taboo that marks the transition from 'nature' to 'culture' by obliging the exchange of women between clans, thereby fostering social alliances beyond the immediate family unit.

Market Economies

Economic systems characterized by the exchange of alienable (transferable) objects through impersonal pricing mechanisms, primarily based on the forces of supply and demand.

Plantationocene

A term describing the widespread global transformation of landscapes into monocrop plantations, relying on slave and exploited labor. This system is a key driver of capitalist accumulation and profound ecological displacement.

Biopolitics

Refers to the state's power and role in regulating the health, bodies, and lives of its populations through various forms of knowledge and governance, such as sexual regulation and medical surveillance.

Cultural Capital (Pierre Bourdieu)

Pierre Bourdieu defines these as the general cultural knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are passed down across generations within families and social groups, influencing an individual's social mobility and status.

Hyperconsumption

A relentless cycle of accumulating goods and services, driven by class-coded desires, which often leads to escalating economic strain and heightened class anxieties.

Ethno-nationalism

An ideology and political movement that defines nationhood in explicitly ethnic, racial, or narrowly religious terms. It can manifest as either state-sanctioned policy or popular social movements.

Role of Modern States in Ethnicity

Modern states, with their extensive administrative reach, often impose uniformity upon diverse populations. This makes ethnic diversity a challenge for governance and strongly motivates the development of nationalism, as states seek to establish a unified national identity.

The Kurds

Recognized as the largest stateless ethnic group, possessing a distinct language and culture. Historically, they have faced significant setbacks in achieving statehood despite various geopolitical alliances.

Genealogical Tracing in Kinship

A social construct that selectively assigns importance among family members. It is intricately layered with spiritual, material, political, and biological meanings, indicating who counts as kin and what obligations follow.

Governmentality

Refers to the various techniques and institutions employed by governments to manage and govern populations by subtly shaping conduct, behaviors, and social norms, rather than through overt force.

Gift Economy

A system of exchange where valuables are given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future reward beyond the gift itself. Instead, gifts carry significant social meaning, foster relationships, and create obligations between individuals or groups.

Power-Knowledge (Foucault)

According to Foucault, this describes an inseparable relationship where power produces reality and specific domains of truth through knowledge and disciplinary practices. Power is most effective when it is translated into a legitimate system of knowledge or 'truth.'

Time as a Cultural Construct

This is fundamentally a cultural construct, organized and measured by human-made instruments. It is not an independent reality but a flexible cultural framework that plays a key role in social organization, shaping how societies perceive and prioritize activities. It can also be 'fetishized' or given excessive importance.

Impact of Race on Individuals

This classification significantly affects individuals' life outcomes, including access to wealth, life expectancy, and home ownership, due to systemic rather than biological factors.

Basic Elements of Race

The fundamental aspects of this social construct are:

1. Classification: A system for categorizing socially defined groups of people.

2. Socially constructed: The criteria for racial differences and their significance are cultural inventions, not biological facts.

3. Power dynamics: A mechanism through which some groups wield power and dominance over others.

Race as a Classification

This categorizes socially defined groups of people based on perceived physical markers like skin color, hair texture, and facial features. These categories are culturally assigned significance.

Race as a Social Construct

This is considered a social construct because the characteristics that define a 'racial group' and how differences are recognized are cultural, not biological. Societies invent categories based on physical traits, and these categories gain social significance and flexibility, as evidenced by the varying number of recognized racial categories across the world.

Race and Power

These categories are a product of historical power dynamics, particularly European colonialism. They were used to justify wealth accumulation, political dominance, and systems like slavery, which perpetuated capitalism. It is argued that 'slavery produced racism,' as people of all colors were enslaved before racial ideology became widespread.

Bacon's Rebellion (1676)

A pivotal event that marked a shift from a labor system including both black and white indentured servants to one predominantly reliant on enslaved Black people. This rebellion solidified a 'white identity' in which skin color became a primary determinant of power and social standing, rather than ethnicity or background.

Biological Distinction of Human Races

No, human groups are not biologically distinct in terms of what is commonly understood as 'race.' Humans are genetically very similar, and perceived differences, such as skin color, are superficial. There is a vast genetic overlap between people of different 'races,' making it difficult to categorize individuals into biologically distinct groups based on physical characteristics.

Concept of 'Caucasian'

The idea of this grouping is considered a myth, originating from a German anthropologist in the Caucasus mountains. It is an umbrella term for people with a certain set of facial features and hair textures, lacking biological basis as a distinct race.

Kinship

Broadly refers to the ways people are grouped together as relatives and non-relatives, primarily based on descent and marriage. Family organizations are deeply shaped by cultural and political contexts.

Kinship as Discourse and Metaphor

This social institution functions as both a discourse and a metaphor. The 'family tree' is a metaphor used to trace power and its transmission across generations. It represents an ongoing discussion about the relationship between biology and social connections, often framed as 'human nature' but fundamentally grounded in culture.

Marriage as a Rite of Passage

This acts as a significant rite of passage, signifying new social and legal recognition for individuals, often accompanied by changes in status, roles, and responsibilities.

Common Rules Surrounding Marriage

Regulations concerning this social institution typically include:

• Regulations concerning who can marry whom (e.g., exogamy, endogamy).

• Legal or social rules governing divorce.

• Stipulations regarding payments, such as the transfer or exchange of property or wealth (e.g., dowry, bride price).

Family, Descent, and Power

These are primary factors influencing social, financial, and political opportunities. Lineages and dynasties often assert power based on their ancestry, frequently invoking origin stories that link them to the divine. The term 'family' is also strategically used in contexts like the workplace to encourage extra effort and loyalty, as in 'we're a family here.'

Role of Genealogical Records in Society

Historically, these records were often maintained by religious authorities. Today, governments primarily keep them to certify individuals through identity documents. Unfortunately, some governments have used genealogical records to deny citizenship and civil rights based on ancestry.

Patronym and Patrilineal Descent

Patronym: A name taken or derived from one's father.

Patrilineal Descent: A system of descent where a child belongs to their father's clan and sons typically inherit from their father.

Matronym

A name derived from one's mother. In a matrilineal system, a child belongs to their mother's clan, and sons typically do not inherit from their father.

Tekonym

A name or title that identifies an individual by their kin relationship, often referring to them as the 'father of' or 'mother of' a child.

Debt

An obligation to pay or do something, typically involving money or goods, owed by one party to another.

Contradiction over Debt

This highlights that while many people agree that financial obligation is undesirable, society continues to engage in it, and individuals often use it strategically. Historical figures like Thomas Jefferson, despite viewing such obligation as unjust, utilized it for political ends, such as land ownership from Native Americans or tenant farming policies.

Debt Discourse

Refers to the negative stigma and language surrounding financial obligation, which often frames it as a moral failing of the individual. This discourse is used to make people feel personally responsible for their situation, turning it into a moral issue rather than an economic or systemic one.

Origin of Debt

Financial obligations emerged with the development of states, predating capitalism. Ancient city-states in Mesopotamia were among the first to develop systems of credit, and money was later invented partly as a means to manage and pay off these obligations.

Additional Elements Concerning Debt

Further aspects of financial obligations include:

• Failure to pay typically carries the threat of violence or severe consequences.

• The concept of credit originated with Mesopotamia city-states.

• Money itself was invented, in part, to facilitate the settlement of these obligations.

Bullshit Jobs (David Graeber)

A book by David Graeber that explores the phenomenon of employment roles perceived by the employees themselves as being meaningless, unnecessary, or contributing little to society.

Behavioral Economics

A model of human behavior that challenges classical economic assumptions by asserting that human judgment is often flawed and irrational, influencing economic decisions in a way not accounted for by traditional theories.

Three Main Elements of an Economy

The fundamental components of an economic system are:

1. Production: The creation of goods and services.

2. Distribution/Exchange: The allocation and transfer of goods and services.

3. Consumption: The use of goods and and services.

Cultural Relevance of Economy, Money, and Debt

The economic order and organization are fundamentally cultural constructs. Money is merely a cultural symbol whose nature is a political matter, and both financial obligation and currency are flexible concepts. For example, primitive currencies were historically used to reorganize relationships between people rather than solely for buying and selling goods.

Two Meanings of 'Markets'

The term has two main interpretations:

1. Physical location: A specific place where goods, like food and crafts, are bought and sold.

2. Economic system: Refers to an entire economic system driven by trade and exchange. States often create these systems and depend on them, and political leaders actively target and influence their dynamics.

Domestication (in production)

A long-term process in which animals and plants undergo biological changes through human intervention, making them more useful to humans. This also requires humans to adapt their lifeways to accommodate these altered species.

Horticulture

A form of cultivation where people work the land without entirely changing or permanently altering the landscape, often involving smaller-scale gardening rather than extensive agriculture.

Swidden Agriculture

A method of cultivation where a patch of land is cleared for planting through slashing and burning existing vegetation. Historically, indigenous populations used this method, which Europeans often misinterpreted as 'unaltered' or 'wild' land.

Agriculture (in production)

Involves working the land in ways that fundamentally change it, often relying on complex systems like irrigation, mound building, and storage. The cultivation of cereal crops, which grow above ground, became a significant basis for taxation by states.

Three Main Elements of Exchange

The fundamental components of this process are:

• Giving

• Receiving

• Returning

Reciprocity

Refers to a social norm or expectation that if an object or favor is accepted, an equivalent must be returned at some point, thereby forging and maintaining relationships between individuals or groups.

Flexible Rank (in exchange)

In systems employing this concept, an individual's societal rank can improve based on how much they give. The more one contributes or gives away, the higher their social standing becomes.

Fixed Rank (in exchange)

In systems employing this concept, an individual's societal position is largely predetermined and cannot be altered by their generosity or contributions. Giving more does not change one's societal rank.

Negative Reciprocity

Occurs when one party gives something highly valued but receives nothing in return, or something of significantly lower value, often resulting in an imbalance or antagonism in the relationship.

Politics

Encompasses 'the relationships of cooperation, conflict, social control, and power that exist in any community and at all levels of social life.' These relationships are always intertwined with everyday social interactions, belief systems, and cultural practices.

Partisanship

The strong, often biased, support of one's political party, group, or cause and its specific political stances. It represents a prejudice in favor of a particular viewpoint.

Effects of Partisanship

The consequences of this strong bias include:

• Division: Leads to the ideological separation of people, causing intense polarization.

• Demonization: Those with opposing beliefs are often demonized, leading to major misconceptions about other parties and their behaviors.

• Threats of Violence: Extreme support for one's cause can escalate to threats of violence between opposing groups.

Michel Foucault

A philosopher who extensively studied the dynamics of surveillance and power in society, influencing concepts such as the Panopticon, Biopolitics, and Power/Knowledge.

Panopticon (Foucault)

Conceptualized by Foucault, this is an architectural design (originally for prisons) that allows an observer to see subjects without being seen themselves. This creates a state where subjects discipline themselves because the potential to be observed, even if not currently being directly watched, induces them to alter their behavior and conform to norms.

Traditional Politics (Sovereign Power)

This form of governance, based on sovereign power, meant that a king or ruler held ultimate authority and was not bound by rules. This power typically cared very little about the personal lives of its subjects.

Disciplinary Politics

Involves the use of rules and procedures to control behavior by establishing uniform standards. It encourages people to conform to what is considered 'normal,' aiming to create healthy, docile, and productive bodies. Institutions like schools are key mechanisms in this process.

Biopower (Foucault)

Foucault's concept refers to forms of power deeply concerned with bodies, encompassing both the individual bodies of citizens and the collective 'social body' of the state itself. It focuses on the 'subjugation of bodies and the control of populations' through various mechanisms of regulation and normalization.

Operation of Modern Power

This is instilled through institutions designed to make individuals normal, healthier, and more productive members of society. The state is deeply invested in the health and education of its populations because it benefits from their productivity, using statistics on birth rates, death rates, and disease outbreaks to gauge and manage population well-being.

The New Jim Crow (Michelle Alexander)

A book by Michelle Alexander arguing that mass incarceration in the United States functions as a contemporary system of racial control and discrimination against African Americans, akin to historical Jim Crow laws.

Role of Race in the U.S. Prison System

In this system, ethnic classification plays a significant part:

• Black people were disproportionately blamed and incarcerated during the drug epidemic, even though white people used opioids at similar rates. White drug use was often framed as an 'addiction' requiring treatment, leading to neuroscience research, while Black drug use was criminalized.

• White individuals often receive preferential treatment, including lighter sentences or misdemeanors for offenses like drunk driving, compared to Black individuals for similar or lesser crimes.

• Historically, there has been no difference in who used drugs, only in who was arrested and prosecuted for it.

Racial Denial

The widespread belief that group classification no longer influences present-day life in the U.S. and that disparities are not caused by systemic issues. This perspective often leads to the mass incarceration of Black people being seen as 'natural' or a 'fact of life,' rather than a product of the system.

Perpetuation of a 'Racial Caste System'

This is upheld through several mechanisms:

• Surveillance: Law enforcement disproportionately patrols minority neighborhoods.

• Formal Control: Violations lead to predetermined sentences, often harsher for minorities.

• Invisible Punishment: Ex-offenders face perpetual marginalization through disenfranchisement and loss of societal standing, hindering their re-entry into society.

• Myth of Choice: The persistent belief that Black and Latino individuals 'choose' criminal behavior, ignoring the social circumstances and systemic factors that limit their options.

Driving after Class (Heiman)

A book by Heiman that explores pervasive anxieties surrounding social hierarchy in contemporary society, focusing on how families navigate and make sense of their identities and trajectories amidst highly competitive and uncertain times.

Culture Builders (Jonas Frykman & Orvar Lofgren)

An interdisciplinary project by Jonas Frykman and Orvar Lofgren that examines the emergence of the middle class through its shaping of concepts like nature, privacy, time, taste, power, and individuality. Their work shows how these topics reflect a specific middle-class worldview and social order, revealing both dominant class culture and mass culture.

Middle-Class Hegemony

Refers to the efforts by dominant groups to colonize and reform other social groups perceived as inferior or lacking 'culture.' It's an attempt to establish and maintain middle-class norms and values as the universal standard.

Social Impacts of Increased Urbanization

This phenomenon, driven by people being displaced from their lands, has led to:

• Over half of the world's population living in cities.

• Cities demanding disproportionate natural resources despite occupying less space.

• A shift from self-sufficiency to reliance on commodities and money, increasing economic dependence.

Industrial Revolution

A period marked by a series of technological advancements that fundamentally transformed the manufacturing process, leading to the creation of mechanized factory systems. This spurred a massive demand for products and services, laying the groundwork for modern market economies.

Peasant Society

This social structure emerged with the rise of states and agriculture. Peasants, while not privileged, were crucial to the state for taxes and cultivation. Individuals in such societies were often bound together by cooperative work and strong kinship ties.

Effects of Colonization

This process involved one country taking over another area primarily for its own benefit, often to extract raw materials, which in turn created new markets. It frequently exploited and drained colonized lands and peoples, leading to widespread famine and underdevelopment.

Impact of Capitalism on Economic Systems and Global Trade

The rise of this economic system often led to the dissolution or transformation of other economic systems. Scholars like Sidney Mintz (in his work on 'Sweetness and Power') highlight its role in creating colonies, fostering economic exploitation, and establishing slave-based production systems, which profoundly reshaped work patterns, eating habits, and the global diet.

Significance of London in the Rise of Capitalism

London became the most preeminent world capitalist city because:

• Industrial structures, not religious ones, dominated its landscape.

• It housed a growing middle class.

• Its status as a major port facilitated global exchange and colonization.

• It established essential economic institutions for control and administration of trade.

Significance of Manchester During the Industrial Revolution

Manchester was a large industrial center and city, characterized by its focus on the mass production of goods. Its location near fuel sources, rather than being a port, made it a prime site for factory development, contrasting with earlier mercantile cities.

Effect of Capitalism on Land

Under this economic system, land was transformed into a commodity, meaning it became something that could be bought, sold, and used primarily for profit through rent, resource extraction, and other commercial ventures.

Effects of Early Capitalism and Colonization on Agriculture

These historical developments profoundly affected agricultural practices, leading to:

• Increased demand for goods, driving greater production and productivity.

• The shift of people selling their labor and time, contributing to the factory system.

• Reduced reliance on traditional irrigation in some areas, coupled with high taxes on agricultural output.

• The widespread adoption of monocultures (cultivation of a single crop in one area), exemplified by surpluses of grain being shipped out of India during periods of famine there.

Cotton and Textiles' Contribution to Industrialization and Global Exchange

This industry was pivotal: looming became industrialized with the steam engine, making textiles a major factor in the Triangle Trade and global exchange. Industrialized nations, producing too many goods, aggressively exported them, transforming global markets.

Impact of Colonial Markets on Local Industries (e.g., Indian Textiles)

These markets significantly impacted local industries. For instance, India already had a prominent textile market, but England's mechanized loom production severely damaged the Indian handloom industry. British goods were often untaxed, while Indian goods faced heavy taxation, creating an unequal playing field in the global 'Triangle Exchange.'

Agro-industrial

A term concerning the combination or integration of agriculture with industrial processing activities.

Severe Effects of Urbanization and Labor During Industrialization

The rapid growth of cities and intense labor demands during this period led to devastating human impacts:

• Increased labor, including rampant child labor, overworking, disease, and malnutrition.

• A surge in social problems like mass alcoholism, infanticide, prostitution, suicide, and mental derangement.

• Higher crime rates.

• Rapid growth without planning, leading to a severe lack of sewers, street cleaning, water supply, and supervision, which resulted in frequent epidemics.

• A profound loss of social unity and the emergence of greater class distinctions.

Class Culture (through 'Culture Builders')

According to 'Culture Builders,' this is not natural but conventional, learned within the home as a 'lesson' in social relationships and rules. It is mediated through rituals, exchanges, kinship, and is associated with specific beliefs, ideas, and symbols often conveyed through nonverbal actions. It demonstrates how dominant groups attempt to 'colonize and reform' other groups through their cultural norms.

Cultural Clashes Over Time

Differences in the concept of time can lead to these conflicts. For example, missionaries often perceived natives, who organized time differently, as 'undisciplined and lazy.' For peasants, time was typically based on the completion of tasks rather than strict adherence to mechanical clock-time.

Industrial Revolution's Change in Perception and Use of Time

This historical period dramatically altered how time was perceived:

• For industrial/corporate workers, measurement became uniform, mechanized, and synchronized to increase productivity.

• The train system necessitated the creation of standardized time zones.

• Institutions like schools began to teach punctuality and conformity to schedules.

• Metaphors emerged, linking temporal organization to careers (e.g., 'climbing the corporate ladder,' 'working around the clock').

Evolution of Time Rituals (Peasant to Industrial Societies)

In peasant societies, these were often centered around annual festivals, rather than individual birthdays. Birthdays arose in industrial societies as 'rites of intensification' focused on mechanical time, marking the individual's life cycle within that structured temporal framework.

Contradiction over Nature

Refers to the paradox where the natural world is simultaneously seen as something primitive and uncivilized, often to be controlled ('don't act like a wild animal'), yet also idealized as something to 'return to,' representing authenticity or natural ways of living ('go about things the natural way').

Nature Viewed in an Industrial Sense

In an industrial context, the environment is primarily seen as a resource to be extracted, exploited, and controlled for human economic benefit and production.

Nature Viewed in a Recreational Sense

In a recreational context, the natural world is perceived as a place of escape, immersion, and rejuvenation. It facilitates 'rituals of separation' (like camping or mountain climbing) where individuals temporarily distance themselves from urban life. The aesthetic appreciation of landscapes in this context helps produce a sense of belonging.

Evolution of Kindness Towards Animals with the Middle Class

The emergence of the middle class brought new behaviors. Animals were seen as symbols of civilization (contrasted with peasants, who were often perceived as cruel). This kindness manifested as 'love at a distance,' wanting to protect creatures without living closely with them, leading to anthropomorphic dialogues and activities like bird watching.

Emergence of 'Pets' Concept

This idea created a distinct boundary between companion animals and other animals. These companions were domesticated, perceived as clean, listened to their owners, and were afforded special status, making it taboo to eat animals that could be considered pets.

Relational Identities: Peasants vs. Middle Class

For peasants, social connections were often centered around the farm and production; weddings were pragmatic unions focused on sustaining the farm, and children learned to work. For the middle class, the family shifted to primarily being a unit of consumption, and marriages increasingly became based on romantic love.

Cultural Understanding of 'Disgust' and 'Dirt'

These are largely learned emotions and concepts, deeply rooted in culture. What is considered 'dirty' or 'disgusting' varies greatly across societies and is not an inherent universal sensation. As Mary Douglas stated, 'dirt is in the eye of the beholder.'

Roman Baths and Toilets: Privacy and Cleanliness

These reveal a public approach to hygiene; for instance, tunics were even washed in urine. A strong sense of privacy, especially concerning bodily functions, was largely absent among aristocracy and peasants alike, developing primarily with the rise of the middle class.

Clean Rites of Passage

These involve deeply embedding disgust and shame related to bodily functions, reflecting an anxiety to establish control over nature.

Industrial Revolution's Influence on Perception of Dirt and Cleanliness

This historical period influenced the perception of impurities as a marker separating social classes. People's interpretations of 'dirt' became tied to who and what they considered 'dirty.' As Mary Douglas noted, 'dirt is in the eye of the beholder.' Table manners and the ability to maintain them also became a way to distinguish class status.

Disadvantages of Overly Clean Environments

• Overwashing can be detrimental to the skin microbiome, reducing its natural protective functions.

• Such environments may contribute to the development of allergies, as the immune system is not exposed to a diverse range of microbes.

Peasant View of Cleanliness

In this perspective, nobody was inherently seen as dirty, people lived closely with animals, and dirt and sweat were often associated with honest, productive work. Showers were typically reserved for religious occasions, and substances like urine or breast milk were even used to clean wounds, highlighting a practical, less-stigmatized view of bodily fluids and dirt.

How Social Attitudes Made Sex 'Dirty'

The bourgeois class influenced views by attempting to cover up the body as much as possible, leading to the use of euphemisms for bodily functions and sexual acts. This cultural shift contributed to sex being perceived as something 'dirty.'