Exam 1 Learning Objectives

Psychology writing format

APA style format.

Problems with personal experience

Lacks comparison groups, prone to confirmation bias, and contains uncontrolled confounds.

Snyder & Swann (1978) study results

People tend to ask biased questions that confirm their existing hypotheses about others.

Confirmation bias tendency

People disproportionately focus on information that confirms what they already believe.

Characteristics of scientific explanations

Empirical, rational, testable, parsimonious, general, tentative, and rigorously evaluated.

Scientific means vs. common sense

Science uses systematic empiricism and controlled observation, whereas common sense relies on untested intuition.

Characteristics of pseudoscience

Lacks falsifiability, relies on anecdotal evidence, and ignores counterevidence.

Steps in the research process (HOMER)

Hypothesize, Operationalize, Measure, Evaluate, and Replicate/Revise.

Hypothesis definition

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

When is a hypothesis proven?

Never; hypotheses are only supported or rejected by data.

Null hypothesis

A statement assuming no relationship or difference between variables in the population.

Rejecting the null hypothesis

Concluding that observed data are too unlikely to have occurred by chance alone.

Characteristics of a good theory

Supported by data, falsifiable, parsimonious, and broad in scope.

Literature review

A comprehensive summary of previously published research on a specific topic.

Primary vs. secondary sources

Primary sources report original research; secondary sources summarize or review primary research.

Independent vs. dependent variables

IV is manipulated or used as a predictor; DV is the measured outcome.

Continuous vs. categorical variables

Continuous variables have ordered numeric values; categorical variables represent discrete groups.

Operationalize a variable

Turning a conceptual variable into a specific, measurable, or manipulable procedure.

Empirical article contents

Contains an abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion presenting original data.

Preprint vs. published article

Preprints are preliminary drafts not yet peer-reviewed; published articles have undergone peer review.

Three kinds of scientific claims

Frequency claims, association claims, and causal claims.

Design that best eliminates confounds

Experimental design utilizing manipulation and random assignment.

Three meanings of a correlation

A causes B, B causes A, or a third variable causes both.

Experimental vs. correlational methods

Experiments manipulate the IV and control confounds; correlational studies only measure existing variables.

High vs. low variability

High variability means data points are widely spread; low variability means they cluster closely.

Systematic variance vs. error variance

Systematic variance is due to the manipulated IV; error variance is due to random, unmeasured influences.

Formula for total variance

Total variance equals systematic variance plus error variance.

Cohen's guidelines for relationship strength

Small (0.10), medium (0.30), and large (0.50) effect sizes.

Random assignment

Using a random procedure to assign participants to conditions, ruling out selection confounds.

Why researchers avoid experiments

Due to ethical constraints, practical limitations, or variables that cannot be manipulated.

Mundane vs. psychological realism

Mundane realism mimics the real world; psychological realism triggers real psychological processes.

Claims best tested outside the lab

Frequency claims, which are usually best tested via representative real-world surveys.