Lecture Notes Review: The Universe, The Solar System, Rocks and Minerals

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts from the Universe theories, the Solar System, and rocks/minerals including mineral properties, rock types, and the rock cycle.

When was the Universe born according to the notes?

Approximately 13.8 billion years ago.

Why don't planets hit each other?

Because they have stable orbits and there is vast empty space between them.

Why can't we see the entire universe yet?

Its light hasn’t reached us since the Big Bang, and the universe is expanding, causing distant galaxies to recede faster than light.

Does the Universe have a physical edge?

No, it does not have a physical edge.

What are the three theories about the origin of the Universe mentioned?

Big Bang Theory, Steady State Theory, Pulsating Universe Theory.

What is the Big Bang Theory in brief?

The universe began from a single point, expanded, and is still expanding.

What is the multiverse idea connected to the Big Bang?

There are many other universes beyond our own.

Who first showed the Universe is expanding, helping the Big Bang theory?

Edwin Hubble (through observations in the 1920s).

What is dark energy believed to do?

Drive the expansion of the universe and accelerate it.

What percent of the universe is known (visible matter) according to the notes?

About 4%; the remaining 96% is unknown or dark.

Which theory predicted the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)?

The Big Bang Theory.

What does Hubble's Law describe?

Galaxies move away from us at speeds proportional to their distance.

What is the Steady State Theory's main claim?

The universe is always expanding with constant average density, with matter continually created.

What is a key difference between the Big Bang and Steady State theories regarding the CMB?

Big Bang predicts the CMB; Steady State has no prediction for it.

What is the Pulsating Universe Theory associated with?

The Perfect Cosmological Principle: the universe is infinite, the same in all directions and times, and does not evolve.

Where is our Solar System located?

In the Milky Way galaxy.

What does the Solar System consist of?

The Sun and everything that orbits it (planets, moons, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets, etc.).

What is the Sun’s approximate age?

About 4.5 billion years.

Approximately how far is the Sun from Earth?

About 93 million miles.

How does the Sun compare in size to Earth and Jupiter?

The Sun is about 100 times larger than Earth and about 10 times larger than Jupiter.

What is the Sun’s core temperature?

Approximately 15 million degrees Celsius.

What types of objects revolve around the Sun?

Planets, asteroids, comets, and other bodies.

Which is the closest and smallest planet?

Mercury.

What is notable about Mercury’s appearance of the Sun from its surface?

The Sun would appear about three times as large and sunlight would be about seven times brighter.

Which planet is known as Earth's hottest neighbor?

Venus (surface about 475°C).

Which planet is home to life as we know it and is the third planet from the Sun?

Earth.

What is the Moon and its approximate distance from Earth?

The Moon is Earth’s natural satellite, about 385,000 kilometers away.

What role does the Moon play in Earth’s climate?

It helps stabilize Earth’s axial tilt, leading to a generally constant climate.

What is Mars known for?:

A cold, dry, dusty planet with a thin atmosphere, Seasons, polar ice caps, canyons, and extinct volcanoes.

Where is the asteroid belt located?

Between Mars and Jupiter.

What is Saturn famous for besides being a gas giant?

Its rings; Titan is one of its moons.

What is Jupiter known for?

The largest planet in the solar system; a gas giant with many moons; could fit inside Jupiter (illustrative phrasing in notes) for scale.

Which planet has methane giving it a blue color and also has rings?

Uranus.

Which planet has methane in its atmosphere giving blue color and also has rings?

Neptune.

What is a fun note about Uranus in the 5 Dwarf Planets fact?

You can't stand on Uranus because its surface isn’t solid; it’s a slushy mix beneath the atmosphere.

What are the two early theories for Solar System formation besides the Nebular Hypothesis?

Encounter Hypothesis and Protoplanet Hypothesis.

What does the Encounter Hypothesis propose?

A rogue star passed near the Sun about 5 billion years ago, tidally stripping material and forming planets.

What is the Nebular Hypothesis?

The Solar System formed from a large cloud of gas that contracted under self-gravity, forming a rotating disk with a central proto-Sun.

What is the Protoplanet Hypothesis?

The current working model combining aspects of the Nebular Hypothesis with modern fluid dynamics and matter states.

What is a mineral?

A natural inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition, solid, and crystalline structure.

What are the five defining criteria of minerals?

Naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, definite crystal structure, definite chemical composition.

What is crystal form in minerals?

The orderly arrangement of atoms giving a solid crystal structure.

What is luster?

The appearance of a mineral when light reflects off its surface (metallic, vitreous, earthy, silky, etc.).

What does color tell you in minerals?

The color of a mineral, though it can vary among minerals.

What is streak in minerals testing?

The color of a mineral in its powdered form, obtained by scratching on a streak plate.

What is hardness in minerals?

Resistance to scratching; a mineral can leave a mark on minerals that are softer than itself (Mohs scale).

What is cleavage in minerals?

A tendency to break along flat, smooth planes due to weak bonding.

What are chemical properties of minerals?

They determine chemical composition and atomic structure and reactivity.

What is crystal form related to minerals?

The arrangement of atoms that gives minerals their solid structure.

What is magnetism in minerals?

Some minerals are attracted to magnets (e.g., magnetite).

What is the reaction of some minerals with acid?

Some minerals react with acid to release CO2 bubbles.

What is taste in minerals testing?

Some minerals have a distinctive taste (sour, bitter, salty) when soluble, though this can be hazardous.

What are rocks in relation to minerals?

Rocks are solid masses composed of minerals (the building blocks of rocks).

What is the rock cycle definition item related to magma?

Magma is molten material beneath Earth’s surface.

What is crystallization in the rock cycle?

Solid-liquid separation where mass moves from liquid to solid crystalline phase.

What is weathering in the rock cycle?

The breakdown of rocks at Earth’s surface due to natural processes.

What are sediments?

Particles and dissolved substances produced by weathering and erosion.

What is lithification?

The compaction and cementation of sediments into solid rocks.

What is the difference between magma and lava?

Magma is molten rock beneath the surface; lava is erupted magma on the surface.

What is the difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?

Intrusive forms inside the Earth; extrusive forms on the surface after eruption.

Name the three magma types and a key characteristic for each.

Basaltic — low silica, low viscosity; Andesitic — medium silica, intermediate viscosity; Rhyolitic — high silica, high viscosity.

Give an example of a fine-grained igneous rock formed at the surface.

Rhyolite or Obsidian (glassy texture).

Give an example of a coarse-grained igneous rock formed below the surface.

Granite.

What is an example of an igneous rock with porphyritic texture?

Andesite porphyry.

What is the texture of obsidian and pumice?

Glassy texture (rapid cooling).

What are granitic rocks rich in and about their silica content?

Feldspar and silica; about 70% silica.

What characterizes basaltic rocks?

High iron content; denser than granitic; typically extrusive.

How do sedimentary rocks form in general?

From weathered sediments that are deposited and lithified.

What do sedimentary rocks often contain that helps tell Earth’s history?

Fossils and coal; they provide clues about past environments.

Name the two primary sources of sedimentary rocks.

Detrital (clastic) sediments and Chemical sediments.

What is detrital (clastic) sediment?

Fragments from weathered parent rocks that are transported and deposited.

What are chemical sediments?

Minerals that precipitate from solution.

What are biological/organic sediments?

Sediments formed with involvement of organisms.

What does metamorphism mean?

Change; rocks altered by high temperatures and pressures underground.

What are the two main types of metamorphism?

Contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism.

What are metamorphic agents?

Heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.

What is foliated metamorphic rock?

Rocks with a banded or layered texture (e.g., slate, schist, gneiss).

What is non-foliated metamorphic rock?

Rocks without a banded texture (e.g., marble, quartzite).